Princess Charlotte of Wales (1796 – 1817)

I had decided to draw my Unsung Women of History Theme to a close for a while, until a post on the history of pregnancy and childbirth brought me to the incredible story of Princess Charlotte, and I simply could not resist learning more about her. And as I did, I was continuously amazed by how little she is known of in popular culture. The only legitimate child of the famous Prince Regent of England, and his unfortunate bride Caroline of Brunswick, Charlotte was, for many years, the heir to the British throne. Her colourful character and her calculated disobedience offer up a completely alternate path of history, cut short from existence by a tragic death which was to not only devastate a nation, but have implications for the medical attitudes towards childbirth for decades to come. From her loving relationship with her grandfather George III and her painful position of being torn between her warring parents, to her passionate marriage to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the princess left a lasting impression on everyone in her life, and her death would forever alter the future of the British Royal Family.

Born exactly nine months after her parents’ wedding, Charlotte was the swift product of an exceedingly unhappy union which was to plague her for much of her life. Wishing to secure means of paying off his excessive debts, George, Prince of Wales married Caroline of Brunswick in 1795; the couple were reportedly repulsed by one another, with George spending his wedding night in a drunken stupor on the floor, so aggrieved was he by the nature of his new wife. Ah, the joys of political marriages! Yet somehow, Charlotte was brought into the world, her gender greatly disappointing her father, but sweetly delighting the ailing king, George III. In less than a month, George and Caroline had split to separate quarters of Carlton House, and the prince forbade his wife any control in the bringing up of their daughter, and only permitted her access to her in the company of staff. Whether the horrific extremity of this stemmed from pure resentment, or from hidden reasons as to a desire for Caroline’s lack of influence, we shall never know. Yet many servants would take pity on mother and daughter, and allow them time alone together, even out in public. Despite Charlotte growing into a merry, warm hearted girl, her father showed so little interest that he never noticed such disobedience. Yet strangely, once Caroline had left Carlton House, the regent allowed her more access to Charlotte. But the young princess was to have another disruption in 1805, when she was essentially thrown out of her childhood home into a lodge on the grounds, so that her father could enjoy the place for himself. Charlotte was separated from her beloved governess, Lady Elgin, and was reduced to a life with merely paid company. But her rebellious nature was beginning to bloom, most likely out of a mixture of inherent mischieviousness, and understandable resentment; Charlotte enjoyed a tomboyish friendship with George Keppel, the grandson of her new governess, and was most intent upon taking the nature of her education into her own hands. The prince and princess’ lack of intimacy obviously resulted in no male heir arriving, making Charlotte the heir presumptive; therefore she was educated in Latin, French, History and in the virtues of religion by the Bishop of Exeter himself. Yet the princess strived to be accomplished and learned also in fine music and literature, and showed a great personal interest in the technicalities of law and politics, suggestive of a preparation for a burden of responsibility, despite her playful, hot tempered nature.

And this temperament was beginning to be noticed by the court, who commented on her informal manner and inappropriate dress as she progressed into her adolescence. In many ways, she was interestingly akin to Princess Margaret, late Countess of Snowdon, had her place with her sister been switched and she been the heir… In 1811, the Prince of Wales was officially appointed regent, due to his father’s ever worsening mental decline. The latter greatly saddened Charlotte, who despite her fieriness, had a big heart, and adored her grandfather. Naturally, the princess’ interest in politics deepened with her father’s regency, along with her fervent support of the Whigs; she even requested a copy of his speech to parliament in 1811, so that she might better understand the political technicalities of a regency rule. However, George curtailed her movements even further, greatly restricting her finances to an extent which prohibited her from conducting herself publicly as a princess ought to. The bored and frustrated young Charlotte, hurt by her father’s continual dismissal of her, began to embark on a series of romances. Firstly, with her first cousin, the bastard George FitzClarence, and more ardently with Lieutenant Charles Hesse, the latter relationship even being encouraged by her mother, who permitted the pair time alone together. Indeed, most of the family were relaxed about Charlotte’s amorous escapades, so put out were they by her father’s treatment of her. However by 1813, George had his eyes set on Prince William of Orange as a suitable match for his passionate daughter; unfortunately the prince made a less than favourable impression, getting exceedingly drunk with the regent during his first meeting with his intended. The princess herself deeply resented the whole idea, being averse to having to leave Britain, and surrender her powers as queen to a foreign prince. Her debate was one struggled with by many female monarchs; on one hand, a marriage made allies and produced heirs, but for a woman, it also meant relinquishment of power, and the risks of childbed. When George first afforded her a meeting alone with William, she emerged from the room in tears at the idea of following him around Europe, and at her family desiring to send her away. Nevertheless, she grew more accustomed to the prince, and a marriage contract was drawn up in 1814, including firmly the terms stating that Charlotte would not be forced to leave her home country.

Charlotte may have allowed a ring on her finger, but the passionate princess was still not set on walking down the aisle, at least not to William of Orange. She was infatuated with a Prussian prince, whose concrete identity escapes historical records, and also considered a certain young man she had met in a stairwell, ironically after explaining to the Emperor of Russia why she had broken off her engagement. Yes, in a fashion rarely seen with young women of such status, Charlotte herself cut William off amicably after he refused to grant her mother access into their marital home. Charlotte had spent her childhood being unexpectedly and routinely parted from her mother, and she would not spend her adulthood in a similar state. Various trusted friendships such as those enjoyed with the likes of Priscilla Wellesley Pole and Margaret Mercer Elphinstone, suggest that female solidarity was extremely important to the princess, and she would not be denied it even after she was married. Her enraged father ordered her to retire to a lodge at Westminster, but Princess Charlotte, quite literally, ran away. She took off into the street, hopped into a cab and travelled to her mother’s home; however on the advice of Whig politicians, who were sympathetic to her situation, she was advised to retire to Windsor and bide her time. There was much public discussion about her flight, with most of the public opposing the regent and favouring the future queen. Perhaps these attitudes were reflective of a time in society where women were demanding more control over whom they married. Hurt when her mother journeyed to the continent without consulting her, the princess was allowed a holiday to Weymouth, in which she arrived to cheering crowds. Although for a while she remained set on obtaining the hand of her Prussian prince, the latter’s engagement to another soon shifted her attention back to the pleasant, but lowly prince who had met her on a stairwell, and accompanied her to her carriage. Prince Leopold had promised to come visit the princess, and had written an impressive letter to her father apologising for any indecency associated with the occasion. But Leopold could not offer enough money for George to accept his courtship; however, by 1815, Charlotte’s heart was set on ‘Leo’, as she had begun to call him. She contacted him again, but he was away with his regiment on the continent for some time; by summer, she requested her father’s permission to marry Leopold, and was refused. Yet her persistence and patience were to finally pay off in early 1816, when the regent, tired of the dramas surrounding his daughter’s marriage prospects, gave in, and invited Leopold to Brighton.

A dinner was held for the three of them, during which George gave his intended son-in-law a thorough inspection, and determined that he was the sort to make his wife happy; not that George himself seemed to be any expert on the matter. Charlotte was overjoyed, remarking that she had never slept so happily as the night after the dinner, and that she believed she would enjoy a marriage of happiness unusual for women of her background. And thus, Charlotte had won a battle most princess’ lost. The couple’s engagement was soon announced, and Claremont House purchased for their residence. A few months of limited contact were endured, before the wedding took place at the beginning of May. Vast crowds blocked the passage to the ceremony, so popular was their union. Charlotte’s wedding dress, as well as costing around ten thousand pounds, sounds absolutely stunning, and very in keeping with her unique and modern attitudes; a white silk underlayer was covered in a transparent gown, decorated with seashells and bouquets. Rosebuds and diamonds completed the outfit, and overall the wedding was an equally successful and happy affair. Despite a location filled with odorous animals, the couple’s honeymoon cemented them as a pair besotted; Charlotte described her new husband as ‘perfection of a lover’, and he stated that they ‘were together always, and we could be together, and we did not tire.’ Leopold’s collected, gentle personality had a calming effect on the fiery princess, with Charlotte dubbing him ‘doucement’, after his affectionate reassurances that she should do things more ‘gently’. The pair adored the quiet of the gardens at their estate, even preferring this over the extravaganza the regent threw for Charlotte’s twenty-first. Charlotte and her new husband arrived back on the London social scene to thunderous welcome after their honeymoon, giving the monarchy a much needed popularity boost. The only blight to their happiness were the miscarriages the princess suffered, but in April of 1817, the couple informed the Prince Regent that Charlotte was once again pregnant, with a child that could be the future ruler of Britain.

And artist’s depiction of the princess and her beloved husband, Prince Leopold.

No doubt due to the outcome of her previous pregnancies, Charlotte’s life was a quiet one from then onwards, and she used her time of rest to sit for several portraits, one of which was to commemorate the Order of St. Catherine she had received from the Empress of Russia. Several prominent doctors were hired to attend the princess, but the man upon whom the greatest trust was placed was the accoucheur, Sir Richard Croft. One of the first, and most fateful outlooks he developed, was that Charlotte’s appetite was too great, and he thus implemented a strict diet. The child was due in October, but she did not go into labour until the third of November; the contractions lasted for two long days, and Leopold remained constantly by his wife’s side throughout. When the princess’ child still hadn’t arrived by the fifth, an obstetrician was called for, but Croft did not permit him entry, nor would he use forceps to remove what was by now perceived to be, a deceased infant. In the evening, Charlotte gave birth to a very large stillborn boy, who was remarked to be the most beautiful child. Saddened though they were, Charlotte and Leopold believed they were out of the woods, and the exhausted prince went to bed having taken heavy opiates, believing his wife to be safe. But in the middle of the night, the princess began to vomit heavily, her bleeding increasing as she struggled for breath. Her husband could not be roused in time, and when he reached her room, Charlotte was dead. The whole country fell into a deep mourning, the streets covered in black banners as they grieved the princess on an almost personal level. The regent was so hysterically distraught that he was unable to attend the funeral, held at Windsor Castle soon after. His reaction, although in keeping with his personality, reveals a lot about the true feelings he had for his daughter, which sadly, came too late in their exposure. Even on the continent, Charlotte’s death was felt keenly; her mother Caroline fainted on the spot, and the Prince of Orange, a man she had once refused, broke down in tears at the news. The country’s anger turned upon Croft, and he was greatly criticised for his refusal to use forceps to attempt to save the princess. The royal family supported Croft against these allegations, but sadly the man killed himself three months later, meaning that the tragedy had overall claimed three lives. Charlotte’s cause of death remains to this day unknown, with some blaming infection, some haemorrhaging, and some porphyria. Yet it is hard to argue that had the princess not been starved for days prior to her childbirth, she may have had the strength to push the baby out sooner.

Prince Leopold was utterly devastated at the loss of his beloved, spirited wife. He would spend hours in her rooms, and left everything as it was for some time; even clothes thrown messily to the side by her were not picked up. One observer commented that it was as if ‘he had lost his heart.’ As he clutched his dead wife’s hand, he was reported to have wept, ‘those beautiful hands, which at the last while she was talking to others, seemed always to be looking out for mine.’ He remarried only in 1832 upon becoming King of Belgium, but never found again the intense love he had experienced in his short marriage to Charlotte. A great monument was erected in her honour next to her tomb, in which also rested her baby boy. And with the succession in a crisis, the regent’s brother, Prince Edward, took Leopold’s sister as his wife; the next year, Princess Victoria was born to them. In a rather lovely and fitting way, she often looked to Leopold for advice, and he was instrumental in negotiating the match between the young queen and her beloved Prince Albert; sadly, she too would lose the person she loved at an untimely age.

While the story of Princess Charlotte is ultimately a tragic one, so many facets of her life were those she was victorious in. In a time which expected subservience and often silence from women, Charlotte remained colourful, outspoken and utterly unafraid to reveal her true character. Her fiery temper it would seem, hid a large heart, often thwarted by the continual struggle between her parents, and the crisis the monarchy faced. Yet Charlotte remained determined to strive to become queen one day, and to control her life in a similar queenly manner. To paraphrase a quote from the princess, she wanted a man devoted to her, not her family nor the government. She was well aware of the realities of the time, and yet she stood her ground for what she wanted, and the sort of queen she wished to become. How different British history would have been had she lived! And regardless of how successful her reign would have been, or would have not been, I am certain that she would have been remembered as one of the country’s most fascinating monarchs. Her death at such a young, exciting age, remains a tragedy, but her life was undoubtedly an epic of passion, ambition, struggle and promise, that was cut short far too soon.

By, Rowan Speakman

(All images sourced from Wikimedia Commons).

Pregnancy and Childbirth in Unwitting Ages

When thinking of reasons why life as a woman in times past would be unbearable, the realities of childbirth are most likely at the top of the list. It was an undeniably dangerous and frightening prospect for any woman; not only was the science of pregnancy and childbirth not understood until scarily recently in history, but a lack of contraception and a focus on the production of heirs meant that plenty of women would spend their lives from their wedding day, to the onset of the menopause, almost permanently pregnant. As a modern woman, we cannot fathom such a life, but centuries ago, many women had a vastly different view of the duty of childbirth, and the enormously high risks involved.

Medieval and Tudor Periods

A terrifying statistic estimates that childbirth, and the after effects of it, was the cause of a third of deaths among married women during the Middle Ages. So regular was this event, that it was not uncommon for women to pen their wills during pregnancy, and for an air of tension to overtake that of excitement. Most women did not even know they were with child until the ‘quickening’, the first movements of the baby in the womb, usually at around five months. They could make assumptions, based on timings of intercourse, lack of menstruation and ineffective pregnancy tests involving observing as to whether the urine was cloudy, and dropping a nail in it to see if it would rust. At this time, the sphere of childbirth was dealt with exclusively by women, such as mothers, female friends, also known as ‘gossips’, or midwives if the lady in question could afford them. This was one of the only elements of society closed off to men, and although the roots of this were probably in the view of women’s reproductive movements as unclean, women took great pride at being afforded an aspect of life in which they were centre stage. Midwives were highly trusted, and expected to be experienced, gentle and highly moral; anyone who did not conform to these standards was often accused of witchcraft. Unfortunately their knowledge only extended to providing support, drawing on experience, advising on positions, producing herbs and ointments and turning a baby; they were unable to save a mother from haemorrhaging, infection or the retaining of the placenta, most of which took effect after the child was born.

There were many beliefs and absurd superstitions associated with pregnancy, yet people took them with the utmost sincerity. It was deemed harmful to bathe in the initial stages of pregnancy, lest it weaken the foetus, nor should a pregnant woman engage in sexual activity, for fear of damage to the child, and the passing on of sinful acts and feelings. They ranged from expected beliefs such as the former, to concerns about a mother looking at animals, or unsightly objects whilst with child, for fear of the baby being born in a similar condition. Warm and dry foods were the preferred diet, as well as ones of a laxative nature with fruit and vegetables not recommended, unwittingly denying the mother vital vitamins. Yet it was still considered fitting to wear a corset, for means of supposed protection or modesty we do not know; regardless overly tightened corsets undoubtedly caused miscarriage. When the pregnancy was nearing its end, upper and middle class women would begin the ritual of confinement after a church blessing; she would be situated in a quiet chamber, with pleasant, calming tapestries and holy relics, and the light shut out. No men were permitted in this inner sanctum, yet this may have differed in the case of queens, whose childbirth was a highly political matter. Most working women were unable to be afforded a period of lying-in, as they simply did not have the time or money to set aside their work. In preparation for the birth itself, many women would purchase a birthing girdle, containing remedies and holy charms, hoping it would protect the child inside them. Herbal baths, and the greasing up of the genitals, belly and thighs with poultices and oils, were believed to help the baby arrive smoothly and safely. Religion was a hugely important part of the process, both ritually and psychologically. Women would call on the strength of saints such as Saint Margaret, and clutch holy relics and gems during birth; their pain was seen as a trial, and a punishment for the sins of Eve. Disgustingly, the nature of female reproduction was as a whole, viewed as something which made women naturally inferior to men; it was thought for a long time that the female sexual organs were simply the male ones turned inside, and thus they were malformed and sub standard. The mother was also said to determine the sex of the baby, and was often blamed when a male child was not produced; hundreds of years later, scientists would discover that the male sperm determines a child’s gender. A male child was said to make for an easier pregnancy and a delivery, and a shorter recovery period.

The experience of birth itself was meant to be kept behind closed doors, only known to married women and midwives. Women would often use an upright birthing stool, pull on a rope, or crouch on all fours with the support and encouragement of those around them as they pushed. Labour could last hours, or even days, depending on the woman. If the baby was to die during this rime, getting the mother to push it out would be of the highest priority; abortives such as pennyroyal were often used in such an instant. Caesarean sections were only performed on a mother who had died, but whose child may still be alive. The natural birth was considered, as it is today, the easiest and most desired approach; women of a good age, with strong natures and an active attitude both on their part, and on the child’s part, were said to have the best chances of survival. Holding one’s breath and pushing down upon the stomach were ridiculous suggestions in the hopes of getting the child out. Hospitals were a last resort, as they were more associated with the lower classes, many of whom were sadly forced to abandon their children there. Once the infant was delivered, the umbilical cord would be tied with a thread, and the baby swaddled to keep it warm and protect its limbs; some midwives were able to sew up any perineal tears that had occurred during the birth. If the child was close to death, the midwife would be allowed to baptise it instantly, and then attention would return to the mother, who was far from out of the danger zone. The placenta had to be ensured to be passed safely, and she would have to be monitored whilst lying-in for the next month or so. Infection after childbirth, as well as haemorrhaging led to many mothers dying of the notorious childbed fever, from which she sadly could rarely be saved. The mother was also deemed ‘impure’ whilst she was still bleeding, and would need to be ‘churched’, before she could return back into society, and back to her husband’s bed. Churching was often a great celebration, in which the mother was given centre stage and thanked God for her surviving of her ordeal. Along with holy relics in the birthing chamber, churching became frowned upon after the Reformation, yet many families still insisted upon practicing it. A last point of note is that of wet nurses; despite the church disapproving of the practice, it would be rare to find a noblewoman who did not employ one.

17th Century

Throughout the next century, death rates during childbirth continued to be high, along with a rapid increase in birth and infant mortality rates; most women would have an average of seven to ten pregnancies, few of which would end in a healthy child. Religion was still leant on as great source of comfort for a mother in labour, but what this would entail was greatly affected by Cromwell’s reforms during the 1650s. Holy relics were again prohibited from birthing chambers, and churching abolished in 1645, and the return was greatly welcomed in 1660; the fact that families again insisted on practicing churching suggested that it was an emotionally and spiritually important ritual for all parties. A woman’s main goal in life at the time was motherhood, and it was a pleasant feeling for her to have her the risks she had faced rewarded and acknowledged. During this period there was a great literary increase throughout society, and many personal diaries and accounts were uncovered; husband’s were also greatly interested in and emotionally invested in childbirth, some purely due to a desire for an heir, and some out of true care for their wives. Such accounts reveal, that even when a woman had stopped bleeding, and passed the various other fluids from the womb (expelling humours), altogether known as the ‘lochia’, it could be a while before she would feel like herself again, mentally or physically. Yet often she was expected to recover swiftly after churching and be ready to bear another child. A birth too easy was considered shameful, as it was not trying enough, yet one too arduous was symptomatic of a ‘weak woman’. All of these factors had implications for the family as a whole, as well as the marriage itself.

The nature of conception and menstruation was still not understood; it was believed that women had ‘seeds’, as well as men; this led to the theory that sexual satisfaction on a woman’s part was necessary for conception and a healthy birth and recovery. Of course, these views varied between people and doctors, with some still believing the opposite. Towards the end of the century, the input of such medical professionals began to be more keenly sought after; doctors and male midwives became popular with upper class women, especially those in cities. The most well known group of male midwives were the Chamberlen men, who first used the forceps as a means of birth assistance. Midwives, once viewed so highly, began to be deemed as unprofessional and unreliable, and could now not legally practice without a bishop’s license. Despite this, The Midwives Book was written and published by Jane Sharp in 1671, as a comprehensive guide to conception, pregnancy, childbirth, aftercare, and raising an infant. It was a revolutionary publication, not only due to its topic, but due to its female perspective. Another note of interest; the year 1647 marked a statute which forbade the concealment of a birth. Thus, all women would now have their childbirths attended and monitored.

Georgian and Regency Periods

The eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth century saw vast transformations in terms of attitudes towards childbirth, with a more dignified and scientific approach becoming the norm. Childbirth was still, and would remain for some time, a highly risky process, the danger only increasing along with the age of the mother, and the amount of children she had already borne. Yet some couples in the upper echelons of society, seem to have quietly discovered means of birth control to prevent such wearing out of a woman’s body. The birth rate among the nobility slowly began to decrease over the years, perhaps due to refraining from intercourse, or use of poorly designed condoms or sponges against the cervix, which were more commonly in use among prostitutes. Yet the most radical of changes came in the form of the accoucheur, a male reproductive doctor who replaced the midwife throughout the eighteenth century; midwives’ practices began to be viewed as backwards, incompetent and ridiculously female, and were slowly replaced with the male dominated scientific approach which marked the era. There was much controversy about this, as although many accoucheurs were highly skilled practitioners whom couples relied on greatly, many saw their profession as shameful, and undermining of a sphere which had always been occupied by women. The profession of the accoucheur, also sometimes undertaken by surgeon apothecaries (the first doctors as we know it), arose not only from the desire for medical progress, but put of the prospect of financial game; there was money to be found both in the delivering of children, and in the advice that many couples sought from these men. Accoucheurs would advise ways of increasing chances of conception, such as travel, fresh air, bathing in mineral or salt water and blood letting, as well as dietary changes. Most women would follow the advice of their accoucheur religiously, before, during and after pregnancy, as upon them was placed an enormous burden to conceive, or at least, to appear to be trying their very hardest. Devastatingly, many women would still blame themselves if they miscarried, or could be made to feel this way by a disappointed husband and family. Gentle exercise was recommended, and many women still rode during pregnancy; there was more awareness now of the risks of wearing tight corsets at this time, and the comfortable stays and loose fitting silhouettes of the regency era were found to be much more accommodating for pregnant women. A lady was now permitted to socialise up until shortly before her child was born, a most likely welcome relief after the generations who endured weeks of dark confinement.

Noblewoman would often travel to their city residence to give birth, as this would enable better access to doctors; however this invited a more public house, and some mothers preferred to retire to their country seats to ensure better privacy. In 1740, the first lying-in hospitals were established in Britain, which were populated by accoucheurs, doctors, nurses and professional midwives. Unfortunately such facilities, incorporating medical people travelling between patients with unwashed hands, proved to be breeding grounds for infections, which led to the increasingly prevalent puerperal fever, which could in turn lead to sepsis. The preparation for the birth of a child at home however, was an expensive procedure, with the pre-hiring of a wet nurse and the accoucheur, who would sometimes take up residence with a couple in the weeks leading up to the birth. A fresh set of rooms were prepared for the birth and the lying-in period to follow, including a waiting room of sorts for family and guests. The bedroom was to be kept light and airy, with husbands now permitted entry to support their wives. However, the lower classes still practiced the older, less up to date rituals of the previous centuries, with some people resenting the loss of the sacred female space. However a pregnant woman in the eighteenth century would have many female visitors and attendants, some of which would share her bed in a show of companionship.

The idealism of motherhood portrayed by society often gave first time mothers a very inaccurate view of the realities of childbirth. Postures encouraged by midwives and doctors included standing, kneeling, being cradled from behind, hunching the knees up to the chest, or using a specialised birthing stool or birthing bed. By the regency era, accoucheurs operated on a principle of minimal interference, preferring to let nature run its course and believing that even the placenta ought to be allowed to be passed naturally. The philosophy of pain as a punishment was growing out of fashion, yet the drinking of caudle, a hot, thick, sustaining and comforting drink, was still discouraged and kept mainly to lower class births. Ergot of rye could be used to speed labour, yet the modern view was that a woman’s body should be allowed to take its time. Controversial instruments such as the forceps, the vetis (essentially a shoehorn) and the fillet (a hook of sorts) would generally not be employed unless there had been hours with no contractions, or the child was dead and needed to be removed instantly. Overall, the death rate associated with childbirth began to lower, yet of course it was still a great concern, and tragedies often occurred. The case of Princess Charlotte in 1817 sparked both public outrage and a dramatic re examination of the methods of accoucheurs as a profession. The princess delivered a stillborn son, but died shortly after of unknown causes, most likely involving haemorrhaging or a pulmonary thrombosis. The public demanded an explanation, as Charlotte, the heir to the British throne, and her husband Prince Leopold had been very well loved, and questioned as to why there had been so little intervention.

Thankfully, a lot more mothers were able to leave their confinement with a healthy baby in their arms, the latter phrase being mainly a metaphor, for wet nurses were still in great use. Often, the child was taken away to the home of the wet nurse, if its mother did not breastfeed it; yet, at an odd conflict with this, mothers of the time were expected to show a greater personal interest in the upbringing of their children. Breastfeeding was still done however, as not only was it a sign of maternal love, but it was also said to reduce a woman’s ability to get pregnant again quickly; such mothers would wear loose fitting garments with loose necklines for ease of nursing. The departure from confinement would progress slowly over the period of a month, with more visitors and greater activity building up until the churching service. Churching was sometimes done at home, but a lot of ladies enjoyed the ritual of more publicly thanking God for their wellbeing before their return to society proper. However, the practice of churching was still very much seen as a way of ‘cleansing’ a woman after childbirth; if a mother died in labour, she would have to be buried in a separate area of the churchyard, and she had not yet been ‘purified.’ This, along with possible coldness towards one’s wife over the gender of the child, was probably the most disgusting example of the treatment of women during the turbulence of pregnancy and childbirth in this era.

Victorian Era

The Victorian period saw an increased focus on medical intervention regarding childbirth, culminating in the increased, but still highly questionable, practicing of the Caesarean section in the 1890s. Frighteningly, the death rate remained the same until the 1930s and 1940s. Marriage and childbirth were one, and information regarding birth control soon became illegal, yet the falling birth rate among upper class families indicates that many couples found a way of contraception regardless. Yet for lower class members of society, ten pregnancies was not rare; illegitimacy was common in the lower classes as well, with many mothers rendered destitute, made to reveal the father, or tragically forced to abandon their infant, thus making them liable for a murder charge.

Following the tragedy of Princess Charlotte, medical interventions involving tools such as the forceps, came into more popular use, along with the rise in administration of pain relief; laudanum could be used, as well as chloroform, the later greatly promoted by Queen Victoria, this sparking the method of ‘conscious sedation’ during labour which came into effect in the latter half of the century, and would endure into the 1950s. Women began to be granted more privacy following childbirth, yet their movements once again became restricted; they were not to rise from their beds for a week or so after the birth, and were forbidden from reading or taking guests, lest they be exhausted mentally or socially as well as physically. There was a regression back to keeping the room of lying-in dark, coinciding with the Victorian view of lack of excitement being paramount. The long hair fashionable during the Victorian era led to secure braiding to keep it untangled and out of the way during the days of labour.

Although the Victorian period saw the beginning of an understanding of antiseptics after Joseph Lister’s use of them in 1867, the first part of it was marked by many infections spread by surgical tools, and haemorrhaging remained impossible to stop. The 1840s saw a beginning of the understanding of the importance of hand washing, and thus overall, the halfway period of the century proved a vital landmark in reducing the spread of infections during and after childbirth. By the 1930s and 1940s, hospitals were the most common places for women to give birth; churching was also fading out naturally by this time, most likely due to the waning fear of religion and the womens emancipation movement of the late nineteenth century. Smaller families were becoming the norm, and by the 1920s, four children was considered to be the average. Yet the Victorian era itself, in regards to its attitude towards childbirth, mirrored that of its core values; a belief in the practice of science, and in the values of conservative views.

From my perspective, childbirth today seems an impossibly terrifying ordeal, so I struggle to even fathom how women summoned the strength to endure hundreds of years ago. Spending almost one’s entire life pregnant must not only have been restricting, but exhausting and ageing, especially when accompanied by the constant, and very justified fear of death. Although it is easy to dismiss the role of motherhood in times past as one that reduced women to breeding machines, we must remember that some women lived happy, fulfilling lives as wives and mothers, just as some do today. Every family and situation would have differed, and thus we cannot assume that all women felt oppressed and saddened by their lot. Yet the exclusion of any other life apart from spinsterhood or motherhood must have been terrible for a lot of women with other ambitions, and it is a difficulty reality for a modern woman to envisage. But throughout the years, one fact has remained the same; women’s bodies are incredible in what they create and survive, and it is terribly saddening that for so many years, the incredible female reproductive system has been dismissed as unclean and inferior, when in fact, its workings are nothing short of miraculous.

By, Rowan Speakman

(All images sourced from Wikimedia Commons).

Travel in Times Past

It can be very inconvenient when writing, when one recalls the fact that one’s characters are not able to travel suddenly from one city to the other when an important plot point occurs. The realities of historical travel can feel like a great hindrance to a narrative, given the length of time such journeys took, their conditions, and they state they would leave the travellers in. Unless an incident occurs on the road, travelling in historical fiction is often a dull experience, both for the reader and the characters. Yet it’s important to have a basic understanding of the nature of long journeys in your chosen time period, what vehicles they might involve, and how long exactly they might take. This brief guide to transportation from the Middle Ages to the end of the nineteenth century, should hopefully give a basic idea of how travel evolved throughout the centuries!

Medieval period (5th century – 15th century)

Travelling in the Middle Ages was an expensive, risky, and time consuming venture, yet it is surprising to hear that a great deal of it occurred. Whilst some people truly did not travel beyond their local market, and those such as villeins, under contract to the lord of their estate, were forbidden from venturing far from home, there were many professions and incidences that required journeys. Trade, religion, education and war, as well as simply searching for a better life, were some of the primary reasons why someone might undertake the hazards a Medieval journey would entail. Pilgrimages would be conducted to destinations such as Canterbury, or the remains of Apostle St James, discovered in the ninth century, with the intent of giving thanks, or prayers to God. If one could afford it, holy journeys could even be made abroad to the likes of Jerusalem; religion could be a restricting concept, yet it could also open doors such as travel. Wars, particularly those to France and during the Crusades, could take common men across the seas, and bring them back with new knowledges and stories of distant lands. Scholars and holy men would travel often, spreading their teachings across the country. Minstrels and merchants’ trades were those that naturally involved constant travelling, and some would not truly have what we would consider a permanent home. So there were plenty of reasons to travel, but how did people go about it, and what was the experience of a Medieval road trip like?

Long journeys, when factoring in horses, provisions and accommodation, were expensive ventures, which required careful planning, and the picking of reliable companions; bandits along the road were a very real concern, and if the party consisted of nobility, guards would often accompany them. People relied on itineraries, lists of locations prior to one’s destination, and the knowledge of the rivers of the land, as maps were yet to be drawn. Following alongside a river not only gave a better sense of direction, but provided the travelling party with a constant water supply. Much of the main roads of England were the remains of those of the Romans, or were built alongside them; roads frequented by the king were naturally maintained the best, and were cleared on either side to prevent bandits hiding and waiting to pounce. The king and his court travelled constantly, staying in most residences for only a few mere weeks before moving on; this was mostly because the court consumed vast amounts of resources. Not only did the king have many properties of his own at which to take up residence, he could impose himself on many unfortunate nobles, whose supplies would be swiftly diminished. Indeed most nobles travelled often; quite simply, the more wealth a person had, the more trips they could make, and in greater safety and comfort. Yet most roads were potted, dirt tracks which could be rendered an impassable mess by a spell of bad weather. Therefore carts were the slowest forms of transportation, especially as they were dependent on mules and horses. In good conditions, twelve miles of travel could be achieved in a day in a cart, and therefore walking was the preferred choice for most people. Fifteen to twenty miles a day on foot was achieved if one was fit and the weather was good. People in the Medieval period had extremely well muscled legs, and some were able to achieve far greater distances than this. Horseback was of course, the swiftest option, with a horse able to cover twenty miles of ground a day, and up to forty when the animal was replaced with a fresh one. I can only imagine how sore one’s backside would be after such a journey.

It was quicker to transport goods by means of flat bottomed boats along rivers; sea travel was a risky, uncomfortable business, which was highly dependent upon the weather. Nautical miles covered in a day ranged anywhere from thirty to one hundred and twenty, depending on the speed of the rowers and the precision of the vessel. Sailing was better done in the summer months, and was navigated by means of the sun and stars until the Islamic introductions of compasses and marine charts. Coastal shipping, in which ships followed the coast line, was used for most national trade. Like land travel, sea travel posed risks such as sickness, piracy and death. Fatigue was also a major problem for those travelling by land, as inns were rare and pricey, and travellers were often dependent on the hospitably of locals, as means of respite from a dawn to dusk walk. A point of note is that wine was more commonly consumed during travel, as dirty water from unknown locations posed all sorts of risks to one’s health.

Tudor period

The Tudor era saw a vast expansion in the reach and popularity of sea travel, as the Western world began to expand its interest to lands and cultures abroad. Henry VIII’s reign saw a great strengthening of the English fleet, and the cementing of England as the naval power it would be known as for centuries. The galleon, a vast, powerful new vessel, equipped both for journeys and battle, was first constructed, and became the symbolic ship of the Tudor era. Canons were first used from aboard, a vital step in the evolution of warfare. Exploration was the word of the century, with trips to the New World bringing back riches, languages, and knowledge such as improved navigation, maps, tobacco and sugar. The international barriers that stood in the way of effective trade, such as cultural and linguistic differences, were beginning to be acknowledged and broken down. People also migrated with their families to foreign soil to escape religious persecution, in an era in which the tensions between Catholics and Protestants were constantly running high. The 1536 Dissolution of the Monasteries was to have a devastating impact on pilgrimage, as the chosen places of worship for many travellers were eliminated. Yet months, or potentially years at sea awaited those who wished to leave the changing England behind; foods preserved by salting or pickling easily rotted, leading to disease and infections, not to mention the scurvy from lack of fruit and vegetables, as well as infestations from lice and rats.

Meanwhile on the roads, the four wheeled coach was becoming more prominent; it had been in use since the thirteenth century, but the Tudor era saw the birth of it proper, especially in Europe. Naturally, these cumbersome things caused many accidents, and were only available to the wealthy. The roads themselves were receiving a little more governmental attention, with the construction and care of timber bridges being noted under the 1530 Bridges Act. Ferries began to become prominent on rivers such as the Thames, but for most people, walking was still the simplest option. Horses were also becoming better bred for speedier travel, with a strong horse and rider being able to cover around seventy-five miles in a day. When news needed to be shared quickly, this often increased, such as in 1603 when Elizabeth I died, and Sir Robert Carey covered nearly four hundred miles in three days to inform James of Scotland that he was now king of England. I sincerely hope he received a promotion. The roads themselves remained dangerous, with robbers growing more calculating in their schemes. The first map of the roadways of England was drawn up by Christopher Saxton in 1579, although it was far too large to be portable as of yet. It is worth noting that the word ‘road’, first came into use only in the 1560s.

17th century

Travel abroad was by now becoming a renowned achievement, with explorers often writing books documenting their discoveries, and having them surveyed by trading companies for knowledge of customs and trade opportunities. Many such people keep travel logs, filled with stories and sketches, which have survived to this day as important historical sources. Trade flourished during the seventeenth century, at the economy booming with it; along with this, came the beginnings of great changes to means and ease of travel. Carriages were available for hire in London from as early as 1605, and the famous London traffics jams were well established by the end of the century. The stagecoach, which was to dominate national travel until the invention of the steam train, was introduced in the 1640s, promoting a new focus on travelling on the main roads of England. The 1663 Highways Act approved the first turnpikes in a few select counties such as Hertfordshire; these toll booths not only provided money for the upkeep of the roads, but the efficiency of them greatly shortened travel time. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the turnpike trusts were flourishing, both an economical benefit to the government, and a travelling aid to the people. The last two decades of the century also saw the addition of windows and primitive suspension to the increasingly popular stagecoach.

18th century

The system of the turnpikes had now utterly transformed the roadmaps of Britain, with most being completed by 1770, completely slashing travel times. The turnpike fever of the 1750s, 60s and 70s saw dozens of new roads constructed; due to the heavier traffic, crushed stone surfaces were put in place to accommodate such vehicles. Their primary occupant for those who could afford it, was the ever evolving stagecoach, which could now cover around sixty miles in a day at an increased pace of six miles an hour. These stagecoaches had designated coaching inns on their route, at which the occupants, of which their could be around eighteen, could rest for the night, and the horses changed or refreshed. The dates and times of these routes could be found advertised in papers and the like; a seat on the inside of the coach could cost around nine or ten shillings, with a seat on the outside around half of that. But the cheaper alternative was a riskier one, as not only was the passenger exposed to the elements, but they were liable to fall from the coach. Indeed, the more upmarket the carriage and its occupants, the fewer passengers it carried. The mail coach was introduced in 1784, on which people could hitch paid lifts; these were swifter options to the stagecoach, yet the safe delivery of the mail took precedence over any tag alongs. Coach guards were often needed to safeguard against highwaymen.

However for most, walking or riding was still the dominant means of getting about. Packhorse trails were a quieter alternative to the new roads, and wide drovers’ ways enabled vast herds of animals to be effectively taken to market. The animal population was vital to a changing and flourishing Britain, but the life expectancy of a coach horse, oxen or mule, was sadly often less than five years. Travelling overseas remained unpleasant and dangerous, and was still incorporating the galleon, as well as more modern vessels. The navy grew constantly in power and size, but the conditions aboard these ships were still cramped and unpleasant. Coastal travel was a safer option, and one both used for journeys and for trade. However if one were to journey to America, they would be disappointed to find that the new country lacked the roads fo Britain, and was comprised mainly of dirt tracks. Meanwhile in London, the hackney carriage became a common method of city travel, along with the post chaise; the roots of steam travel were also beginning, with the first steam locomotive engine being invented in 1784 by William Murdoch. Yet travel plateaued fairly evenly throughout the eighteenth century.

19th century

Coach travel was to reach its peak in the 1820s and 30s, with thousands of stagecoaches now populating the roads of Britain, but the power of the stagecoach was soon to wane in the face of the railway. The first full scale model of Murdoch’s 1784 steam locomotive was constructed in 1804, and in 1825, George Stephenson created the first public steam railway in the world, to be followed by his famous ‘Rocket’ four years later. In 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester railways opened, both carrying freight and passenger trains, and by the middle of the century, Britain was covered in railway lines, carrying people and ideas across the country within a day. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, with the industrial revolution well underway, three billion pounds were spent by the government on railways alone. The new system revolutionised the coal and iron industries, and increased commerce and the amount of holidays taken by ordinary people. Train timetables and stations were established, many of these stations lasting til today. The first undergrounf railway was constructed in 1863, a fact which surprised me, as the concept of an underground seems a very modern one.

In the cities, carriages such as the omnibus and the cabriolet caught on from Paris, developed to be lighter and nimbler in the ever growing crowded nature of the London streets. Horse drawn buses, as well as the trams developed in the 1870s, made transport easier for the lower classes, and marked the first idea of affordable public transport. A popular method of transportation among the upper classes was the four wheeled barouche carriage, yet such finery was not available for country dwellers, who had to make do still with riding and open topped vehicles, which were much slower. The steam ship, and the paddle steamer, rose to prominence, the latter of which transported millions across the Thames by the middle of the century. Remarkably, bicycles were not invented until the late 1880s, inventing a new means of travel and of leisure. Now, electricity was coming into prominence, along with the motor car and motorbike, invented in 1886, and becoming popular a decade later. The speed limit of four miles per hour had to be lifted after this, as by the end of the 1880s, trams were beginning to run on electricity.

So there you have it! My post today is relatively short, because the contents are quite factual and dry, albeit necessary for the crafting of an organic historical world. Yet it amazes me how people in times past, especially during the Medieval and Tudor periods, were able to walk and ride for hours; the level of fitness they must have reached was astounding, if skeletons found from the time are anything to go by. Regardless, people have always had the urge for adventure, and have always been worn out by tedious journeys and desired swifter, more comfortable alternatives. Next time I’m on a long car ride, I think I shall be grateful that I’m not having to make such a journey two or three hundred years ago!

By Rowan Speakman.

(All images sourced from Wikimedia Commons).

A History of Marriage

When we think of the concept of historical marriage, either one of two extremes comes to mind; firstly, a cold, loveless union in which a wife is treated firmly as subordinate piece of property, or a grand romance full of the chivalry and loyalty often absent from modern ideas of dating. In reality, although marriage in past centuries was a very different institution to what it is today, the reality of it varied greatly between couples, circumstances and time period.

Medieval period (5th century – 15th century)

For a long period of time, the institution of marriage was not considered a sacrament in law, merely in concept, creating much conflict within establishments such as the church, as to what truly defined marriage. Yet the primary intentions behind a union, were those of financial gain, and for the creation of children. Even though passionate love as we know it today was rarely, and inadvisably, the motivation behind marriage, it was expected and hoped that a married couple would come to have a deep fondness and respect for one another. Most marriages among the middling classes and the nobility were essentially contracts, promising exchanges of finances and property, yet for the peasantry, who did not have such exchanges to make, love matches were far more common. Yet among the latter classes, official, public marriages were rarer; indeed, among all classes, verbal vows showing willingness to marry followed by consummation did constitute a marriage. However these unions were a source of issue, as they could easily be denied, and any children left illegitimate. It is worth noting that from 1215 onwards, the Fourth Lateran Council insisted upon a marriage being witnessed, although the presence of a clergyman was still not necessary. The concept of consent and commitment was of the highest importance in the Medieval period, but not as we know it today. Often coercion was used in many forms, as it was rare for a potential newlywed to disagree with their parents’ choice of spouse. Any vows made that referenced the heart, did not necessarily signify romantic love, as the head and heart were thought to be one, but more so commitment to a union.

From a young age, girls would have the importance of marriage and rearing children of their own, instilled into them as the ultimate pinnacle of their life. The onset of puberty was deemed an appropriate age for marriage, the minimum age being twelve for girls and fourteen for boys, although the relationship was rarely expected to be a physical one until both parties were in their mid to late teens. The intention of a couple to wed was declared through the calling of the banns, a public proclamation that occurred three Sundays prior to the wedding, and invited those who contested the match to step forward. When the day dawned, a procession was expected socially, before the couple exchanged rings most commonly in the porch of a church, yet the ceremony could occur anywhere, and would not require the presence of a priest until the reign of Mary I. It was scarily common for the couple not to have met prior to the wedding day. Both bride and groom would wear their finest attire, and if the bride was named Mary, her clothing would often be blue. The idea of the veil stems from the commonly held fear of the interference of the Devil, which extended to searching the marital bed for cursed objects. Although chastised by some, music and dancing followed most weddings, before the bride and groom were taken off to be dressed for bed, usually in a bawdy fashion, and prayers were said around them. Thankfully, most newlyweds were then left alone, but in some cases of royal weddings upon which a great political alliance depended, the unfortunate couple were forced have their first sexual encounter witnessed.

There was a large school of thought that a marriage was not valid until it was consummated physically, yet many among the church believed that blessings and consent qualified. While some saw sex as a Godly act, others saw marriage as a way of merely regulating the sinfulness of human desire if one could not bear celibacy, and it was a relationship in which intimacy was to be used solely for procreation, and never pleasure. Sex was prohibited on feast days, Sundays, during pregnancy and for forty days after childbirth, and was to be carried out with as much clothing on as possible. There was a theory that the female orgasm led to a greater chance of pregnancy, but given the aforementioned restrictions, this seems unlikely to have occurred very often. Yet the principles of a successful marriage were based less on physicality, and more on how well the couple committed to their new roles. It was the husband’s duty to care for and protect his wife, and to manage the family finances, whilst the wife was tasked with managing the household, and rearing any children. Although she was expected to be subordinate to her husband, a wife would expect to be relatively well respected in her position in the household. Yet still for hundreds of years to come, a woman’s value in society would be based solely upon her marital status and her sexual purity; women could be returned in disgrace to their families by their husbands if it was found they were not a virgin, and any man who slept with a virgin prior to marriage would be expected to either marry her, or pay her family. Thus, women’s value was reduced to their sexual status, yet their own sexuality was utterly disregarded and branded as sinful. Once married, she and her goods belonged to her husband, and if the marriage proved unhappy, a divorce was hard to obtain, and could only be sought at a Church court.. The union would have to be proven incestuous, or her husband proven impotent; unexpectedly, women could end a marriage on account of being denied conjugal rights for whatever reason, as the purpose of the relationship was sadly, ultimately with the primary intention of producing children. Adultery was heavily frowned upon, and severe punishments could be applied towards both an unfaithful husband, and an unfaithful wife.

Tudor period (1485 – 1603)

Although marriage during the Tudor era still did not require official documentation, the church was becoming increasingly concerned about the impact of unofficial and impulsive marriages, which had the power to ruin familial alliances and produce illegitimate offspring for whom the church would often have to care. Therefore, stricter marriage laws and customs were put into place; in a similar vein as the practice of the reading of the banns, an engaged couple would have to attend church three Sundays prior to the wedding, and repeatedly swear their intention to marry, and the validity of said marriage. Church weddings were not compulsory, yet a union in the sight of God was deemed more official, and was a requirement of the families of the couple, as well as the community. The exchanging of vows would most commonly occur near the door of the church, with the groom blessing the ring on the Bible, before placing it on his wife’s right hand. The newlyweds then knelt before the altar as prayers and blessings were recited, and a veil was placed over them to symbolise their unity. After the celebrations, the priest would return to bless the marital bed; by now most marriages were not deemed truly valid unless they had been consummated, although it is worth noting that many brides were already pregnant when they walked down the aisle. The motivation behind the marriage is not hard to deduce from this.

Marriage remained an extensively pre organised family affair, incorporating many financial deals and agreements such as the inheritance of property, widow’s jointures and the size of the bride’s dowry. The age of consent to marry remained the same, yet often among royalty and the nobility, engagements had been brokered since birth. Such unions could take years to arrange, and neither party was obliged to remain set on the betrothal; royal alliances between children, such as the many betrothals of Elizabeth of York and Mary I, were frequently broken off. However, most people waited until their late teens or twenties to wed, so as to be in a suitable position to maintain their own household. Yet most people did marry, as it was hard for both men and women to function without the financial and familial aid of a partner. Each partner was expected to love, care for, and respect the other in their different roles. Most marriages functioned on mutual fondness and trust, as opposed to passion or desire, and many unions were filled with love and tenderness.

Yet life expectancy was short, and it was not uncommon for one person to have multiple marriages in their life time; remarrying was especially vital if one had children to manage. In not so common circumstances, a particularly unhappy union could be broken off by the church courts, under grounds of incest, insanity or impotence, all of which would have to be proven. This process of divorce as we know it, in which both parties were free to remarry and their children declared illegitimate, was not possible until the Reformation of 1533; and if divorce was not possible, a physical separation could still be granted, yet neither person could take a new spouse. Divorce proceedings were impossible for Catholics, yet more attainable for Protestants and Scots; the institution would have been heavily frowned on during the reign of Mary I (1554-1558), which also instilled clergyman as an essential component of a marriage ceremony.

17th Century

The seventeenth century, particularly the latter half, saw a massive boom in commerce and industry which coincided with a dramatic rise in marriage and birth rates. The family life became far more public, and despite the returned decline of marriage as a sacrament, church weddings were still highly regarded as indicative of a union blessed by God. The Puritans objected to certain religious rituals surrounding weddings, including the closing of the marriage season during holidays such as Lent and Advent, and the exchanging of rings. Yet the belief in the institute of marriage itself remained strong throughout the century, regardless of discourse over its methods of practice. Marriage afforded a man better social status, and opened up new careers for him such a a jury member, a warden or a Parish constable. The status of a married woman was across the board higher than that of an unmarried one, but would be further elevated based on the rank of her husband. Once married, a woman was afforded access to the rituals around childbirth and midwifery, as she was now deemed knowledgeable of them. Although women had always been regarded as the moral, physical and intellectual inferiors of men, there seemed to be a particular dip in attitudes for a time during the seventeenth century, possibly associated with the turmoil of the Civil Wars. With the flourishing economic climate of the country, more middle class families became wealthy, and thus the burdens of managing a household grew more arduous, especially when accompanied with the soaring birth rate and infant mortality rate; ten births or pregnancies was not uncommon, but many of them sadly not end with a healthy child.

The ages of marital consent remained the same throughout the reign of the Stuarts, but towards the end of the century, many young women began to express more interest in selecting their own husband, a practice which would become more popular in the years to follow. In a time where the ownership of vast estates was becoming more common, the matter of marrying off one’s daughter was one of great anxiety, as there was a chance that the lands of a father could fall into the hands of his son in law. Thus the selection of a suitable match at the appropriate time was more important than ever. During the seventeenth century, particularly in rural regions, bundling, a practice which enabled a courting couple to test their compatibility, flourished. The young couple would be permitted to share a bed together with the intention of becoming more intimately familiar with one another; the strictness of the monitoring of this ranged from the pair being separated by boards or ‘bundling bags’, to the young couple being allowed to engage in sexual acts excluding the final consummation. However, in many poorer regions, the practice of sharing a bed was common, and in a lot of cases blurred the line with the practice of bundling. It was either borne out of necessity, or a more forward thinking concept of ensuring healthy marital relations, and would probably have been either extremely awkward or extremely beneficial.

However the issues surrounding unofficial marriages, and the requests for divorce, remained thoroughly prevalent. In 1695, the tax on marriage licenses was introduced, to ensure that anyone intending on marrying was sincere in their intentions, and would later become a symbol of a well to do union. Wedding banns continued to be read to allow any objections to come forward, and, particularly after the 1660 Restoration, weddings would be greatly celebrated. It was custom for brides to wear lots of ribbons on top of their best attire, and to be gifted gloves, a symbol of their new status as a married woman. Now, the ring was placed on each finger leading up to the third as vows were said, rather than being placed directly on. It is a misconception that the entire country was besieged by a wave of immorality and adultery after Charles II’s ascension to the throne; whilst these attitudes were prevalent in higher echelons of the capital and the court, most of the nation remained as scornful towards unfaithfulness as ever. However, after the social strictness enforced by the Puritan era, there was a new sense of affection between the family unit to an extent never before seen.

18th Century – Regency period

Moving into the 18th century, society saw an increase in matches made out of passion and impulsivity, with an increase in young couples creating a subsequent increase in the birth rate once more, as these marriages had more years of youth during which to conceive children. Marriage licenses were becoming increasingly expensive, and official weddings heavily taxed; thus, there was more reason than ever to conduct a wedding in secret. Prison keepers in cities often oversaw clandestine marriages, particularly among the working classes; these were known as Fleet marriages, and were conducted without parental consent, which was now legally necessary for those under the age of twenty-one, following the 1753 Marriage Act. Yet a number of marriage institutes in Scotland were free of this decree, the most famous being Gretna Green, to which many young couples, both in reality and in fiction, hastily travelled in the hopes of tying the knot and finding a room to consummate their union before dismayed parents caught up with them. It may seem to us a reckless, impulsive act to flee to Gretna Green in such a manner, but if one had the good fortune to fall truly in love, marriage was the only way socially acceptable to have any sort of intimacy with the person you loved, and therefore it is quite understandable that many young people were willing to take such a chance. Sex prior to marriage was not illegal, but was heavily frowned upon and could result in social banishment, not to mention the limitations of true romance when searching within one’s own class.

The much more common alternative to a love match was a practical union which could either blossom into fondness, or relegate its inhabitants to an isolating life of separate social lives and empty beds. Marriage was beginning to be acknowledged as a loss of liberty by many women, and thus the increased focus on the delicacies of courting began. Courting was becoming an empowering time for women, as they could reject or accept on their terms; the practice of letter writing and sending Valentines came into play, along with the introduction of the ‘lonely hearts column’, in which both men and women could publicly advertise their specific desires for a spouse. Choosing a partner had the power to transform one’s life for good or ill, and few young women did not approach the matter with great care. The expectations of the ideal Georgian wife were high and extremely contradicting of one another; virginal, but not unwilling, silent, but not dull, appropriately wealthy, but not so to eclipse her husband, intelligent enough, but not wittier than him and so forth. Indeed, many of these requirements still have their remnants in society today.

Once a proposal was made and accepted, various dinners, introductions and marital settlements between the two families would be made, followed by the sending out of invitations and the calling of the banns. A marriage license would be valid for three months, but if a wedding was to occur too quickly, suspicions about the circumstances were often raised. The engaged couple were now permitted to be alone together and to enjoy polite intimacies such as kissing and hand holding. Now that they were to be married, it was considered acceptable for them to dance more than two sets together at a ball. Weddings would be small and discreet, and would take place in the morning, resulting in the subsequent meal being referred to as the wedding breakfast. The nature of the ceremony was very recognisable in terms of what we know today in the Western world, but the bride and groom would still be attired in their Sunday best, and would reuse their outfits at later dates. Widows would sometimes have smock weddings, in which, as the name suggests, they simply wore a smock. The bells would ring as the couple stepped out of the church, and the bride was often saluted; if the sun was to shine upon the steps, it was taken as a good omen. The wedding breakfast would be followed by dancing, before the couple would change and either depart to they new residence, or on their honeymoon, the latter of which was still rare. The bedding ceremony for most outside of royalty had evolved out of fashion by now, and the couple were given far more privacy. Young women were given the most basic of sex education, yet their male counterparts would most likely have been permitted to gain sexual experience for themselves before marriage. Yet the eighteenth century and the following regency years had a much more liberal attitude towards sexuality than the Victorian period to follow. Once married, both parties would find their social status elevated. Although husbands still had appalling rights to control and punish their wives, most marriages had a degree of tolerance and respect, and men were encouraged to listen to their wife’s advice.

Victorian era

Despite the sexually repressive, and highly conservative nature of the Victorian period, a few odd laws concerning marriage popped up at the beginning of it. In 1823, shortly after the end of the official regency era, the age at which one did not need parental consent to marry dropped to fourteen, and it was now acceptable to wed a first cousin. Unmarried women of the age of twenty one or above could now inherit property, yet this right fell through once was she was married. Indeed until the beginning of women’s rights movements in the 1850s, the view on the morality and sexuality of women became stricter than ever. Women were viewed as beings governed by their reproductive systems and desires, and men were seen as victims of these, leading to the invention of phrases such as ‘she was asking for it’. To be a mother was a confusingly virginal occupation, and one from which the notion of female sexuality was to be obliterated. Mothers were to act as a moral compass to their children, and were to strive to be the antithesis of a prostitute, the second category which women were placed into. Sex and sexuality was not discussed among decent society, and lust, adultery and masturbation were linked to hysteria in women, and could lead to them being committed to an asylum. Yet if a man was to be unfaithful, another offence would need to be committed by him in order for his wife to have a suitable case for a divorce.

Emotional declarations for both genders, more accepted in the previous century, were now considered inappropriate; public pride in one’s betrothed or spouse was far preferred to affection. Yet to break off an engagement on a gentlemen’s part was considered dishonourable, and grounds for legal and financial contest. It would not be until 1885, that a divorce would be attainable in other ways save than through Parliament. Another point of worthy note for the Victorian age, was that it was during this time that white became the standard colour for wedding dresses, fashioned after the queen’s own wedding in 1840. It seemed to take on the meaning of purity afterwards, as widows remarrying did not wear white nor flowers. The ceremony itself remained much the same as it had been in the previous century, although the honeymoon was now a common practice due to the increasing availability of travel due to the invention of the steam train.

I think that the main conclusion we can draw, is that marriage in times past had a very different intention and purpose than what we consider it to be for today. It would not be until after the First World War that unions borne out of romantic love would become in the majority, and even then, the aristocracy often abided by the concepts of strategic financial unions, as practiced for many years beforehand. It cannot be denied that the requirements for a marriage to be based on what the other party could practically offer, stemmed from the lack of independence suffered by both genders. Society’s gender norms and laws prohibited women from earning money of their own, and prevented men from learning the basic domestic skills necessary to care for themselves. The intense focus on the need to have heirs was also a large motivation for strategic unions, as the inheritance of property and the continuation of bloodlines was once of the highest social priority; individualism is very much a modern idea. However one of the most important things to remember about historical marriage, is that bad treatment at the hands of one’s husband was not the norm, yet a woman would receive no protection from it if it were to occur. The second key take away, is that a marriage filled with fondness as opposed to passion, would not be a disappointment to most people; yet one of the key ideas often explored in historical literature is, what if it is?

By Rowan Speakman

(All images sourced from Wikimedia Commons).

Bygone Leisure

It’s quite difficult nowadays to envision a world where our daily lives aren’t populated with modern means of entertainment such as recorded music, the internet and television. But little over a hundred years ago, most of these amenities were unimaginable, which begs the question; what did people two, three, four hundred years ago do to unwind?

Medieval period (5th century – 15th century)

We normally associate the ten centuries or so that make up the Middle Ages with grey, drab, miserable lifestyles with no joy or relief from sickness and brutality. Yet even among the poorer classes, socialising and celebrating were important, if infrequent, parts of Medieval life. There was far greater numbers of festivals and holidays back then, some of the most important including Christmas, Easter and May Day. During these religious celebrations, and other important events such as noble or royal weddings, the lord of the estate, town or region would gift the peasantry with a feast of fine food. The streets would fill with entertainers such as jesters, mummers, minstrels and troubadours, who travelled between towns and cities performing their arts. Mummers would often perform religious plays or reenact classic stories, either in the towns, or in the castles of royalty and nobility. These events would be looked forward to greatly among the lower classes, as for most days of the year, their hours were occupied by labour, or the efforts it took simply to eat, bathe or keep themselves safe. Sunday was the sacred day of rest, and one in which people would gather at the parish church, as a means of both piety and socialisation. Most settlements had a village green, on which people would gather to talk, tell stories or play sports in the evenings. Activities such as hurling, bowls, archery, wrestling and horseshoes were popular. Contrary to common belief, people across all classes, ages and genders enjoyed mentally stimulating board and card games, including shovelboard, hazard, fox and geese and chess, the latter introduced to England in the ninth century. Young boys would also enjoy playing at war games, and later training for the eventuality of battle. Girls’ education was occupied with focuses such as sewing, cooking and cleaning, to prepare them for keeping their own house as adults. Hunting and fishing were also necessary skills to hone, but for the poor, kill was restricted to small animals such as rabbits; it was still considering an atrocity to hunt in crown forests. Of course, more purely pleasurable activities such as drinking, sex and gambling were indulged in across all classes.

Hunting was enjoyed as a social activity more so by the rich, who could afford horses, hounds and were permitted to hunt larger prey such as deer. Often, a nobleman would invite others of his class to his estate to hunt, women included in this number. Other brutal activities such as jousting, cock fighting and hawking were enjoyed by royalty and the court, along with more frequent banquets, populated by entertainers, and followed by dancing. Music of the period was inspired greatly by the Catholic church, as well as the concepts of chivalry and courtly love, and came in the forms of instruments such as the flute, the harp, the cymbals and one’s voice. Musicians and jesters would sometimes be called to the court to entertain a king in bad spirits, a task probably not enviable lest these intentions have the opposite effect. Reading was a skill reserved for the rich and the clergy, but was an academic, not recreational activity for many years.

Tudor and Stuart periods (Late 15th century – early 18th century)

Although the every day life of most common people would have remained much the same in terms of how they spent their leisure time, the general attitudes in England towards the nature of entertainment, particularly under monarchs such as Henry VIII, Elizabeth I and Charles II, altered drastically during this time. Henry VIII was a king famed for lavish expenditure, and these attitudes were mimicked in the all time high of the popularity of gambling. What could be considered the first playing cards had been introduced in the 1400s, and were now swiftly catching on in games such as primero, new cut and noddy; people could lose fortunes in these games, and their immoral practices even had laws passed against them. The holidays of the twelve days of Christmas were celebrated with unprecedented lavishness among the nobility and at the Tudor court, yet all homes across the country marked the occasion with as much splendour as they could spare. The royal court, and many towns, had a Lord of Misrule, whose job it was to arrange festivals, holidays and feasts. Yet the title was abolished late in Henry VIII’s reign, deemed a Catholic practice, but was still in place in many parts of the country.

The art of theatre was to be transformed in Tudor England, first by the gradual shifting of the nature of the plays from those of religious teachings, to those focused on games and songs, and epic tales of lands far away, and secondly, by the invention of the theatre proper. This latter development truly came into fruition during the Elizabethan age, with the creation of the globe theatre and the famed works of playwrights such as Shakespeare and Marlowe. By the mid 1590s, around 15’000 people attended London plays weekly, the wealthier in covered seats, while the poor were bawdy and unruly in the crowded pit below the stage. Of course, many forms of entertainment remained brutal, with games of football of a most violent nature becoming popular, the sports of bear baiting being endorsed by the monarchy and executions being viewed as a great day of entertainment. Not only was it shocking and interesting to witness the public death of important figures, but the crowds around executions brought in great trade and commerce, akin to a morbid festival.

Sword play games continued to flourish, along with the sport of archery, with Henry VIII loving the sport so much that he decreed that every man in England ought to have a longbow in his home. The king’s late brother, Prince Arthur, was known to be so skilled an archer that anyone possessing such talent was dubbed an ‘arthur’. The sport was enjoyed across all classes, but games such as tennis were reserved for the court, with the poor enjoying games more akin to hand ball and balloon ball. Hawking, and the care of the animals by falconers, was a popular pastime, and a prestigious and sophisticated position in a noble household. Yet the Tudor era was famed for a lack of equal intellectual sophistication, with the amount of people taught to read still exceedingly low, and the amount of printed books plummeting. This was to change after the Restoration in 1660, the cultural reforms introduced by Charles II spiking a literacy boom which also extended to the theatres, which included female actors for the first time in English history. Throughout the seventeenth century, the wealth of the country soared due to good trade, and thus the amount of people with money to spend on leisure time increased. These extravagant attitudes must have been a relief for a country in the wake of the restrictions during the Cromwell era of the 1650s, in which places such as inns, theatres and baiting pits were closed under the new reforms.

The 18th century proper

During the eighteenth century, modern concepts of sports, travel and culture truly began to take root. Horse racing took its place as a professional sport, along with cricket, with both the Jockey Club and the official cricket club being formed around 1750. By the latter half of the century, most towns had a theatre, and an assembly room for socialisation and traditional games, which still remained popular as a pastime. Spa towns such as Bath prospered with the renewed interest in the properties of mineral water; along with this came a widely held view that sea air was beneficial for one’s health, and so seaside trips and holidays to towns such as Brighton and Blackpool became increasingly popular, if one could afford it. Another pleasant venue for strolling was the new creation of the pleasure gardens in London in 1746, initially exclusive to the upper echelons, but soon open to most classes due to low entry fees.

Whilst young men frequented their clubs and were encouraged to take a tour of Europe for a year or two, the leisure time of young women was spent acquiring accomplishments and preparing for marriage. In Europe during the eighteenth century, a time consuming part of the day for a woman of royal or noble ranking was the morning toilette, in which the lady would entertain visitors whilst dressing and readying for the day. This would occupy a good few hours of her morning, yet in most cultures, the routine was more private and less extensive. For both genders, literature began to catch on as the first true novels were published, with the daily newspaper being established in 1702. Outwardly, it would seem that the leisure time of society was becoming more refined and dignified. Yet beneath the veneer of high societal fancies, the macabre realities still lurked.

Violent sports such as bear-baiting, cock fighting and boxing were as popular as ever, yet one of the darker shades of entertainment during the eighteenth century was surely the introduction of various curiosity exhibitions into society. This ranged from exotic animals to people with physical deformities, whom society was morbidly curious about, a sick attitude which would continue throughout the Victorian era. Asylums such as Bedlam were viewed as circuses, with crowds of people flooding in to mock and gawk at the inmates. The behaviour of such visitors grew so abominable that the doors of Bedlam were shut to the public in 1770. Yet blood lust could still be satisfied with the ever popular events of executions and criminal punishments, symptomatic of a macabre nature that was allowed by society, and so at odds with the outward decorum and decency of it. The sex trade flourished also with the ever growing populous of cities, with some men travelling to such places exclusively to visit a brothel.

Nineteenth century

By the Regency era, the focus on mentally, intellectually stimulating activities such as reading, painting, needlework and music was well engrained into aristocratic society. An accomplished, desirable young woman would spend her youth acquiring skills such these along with the social etiquette required to make a good match. Most young women were expected to be able to play an instrument such as the pianoforte, the flute or the violin, and to know the popular dances of the era such as the cotillion and the country dance, and later the waltz, introduced in the Regency era proper (1811 – 1820). Dancing, along with walking and riding, was considered good excercise. Intelligent conversation, which could be fed by reading, was considered a mark of good breeding for both sexes, as was art. Parlour and board games, especially chess, also fit the bill for leisure time well spent.

With the industrial boom of the Victorian era, the entertainment sector of society naturally began to spread even wider. Railway travel made access to seaside holiday resorts even easier, especially for those in the middling classes. Circuses continued to draw great crowds, yet in the Victorian era, exhibitions such as the 1851 Great Exhibition, grew more popular, as they educated people about the world and the progression of science and technology. Football and rugby became organised sports, but it wasn’t only men who could now enjoy physical activity. Women had specially shortened skirts to participate in sports such as golf and croquet, and in 1885, when the bicycle first became available, they had a new field of excercise opened up to them. Children were also to benefit from new inventions, as with the new fields of industry also came the toy factory, which enabled children from much poorer classes to have access to luxuries once reserved only for the wealthy. Yet still among the working classes, much time was occupied with earning money, with long hours of hard labour leaving little time for true leisure.

It’s important to remember that the macabre activities enjoyed by some during past centuries, are not reflective of every individual’s tastes, but they are reflective of times which were much less sensitive to violence and brutality. Another vital takeaway, is that we cannot assume that everyone was once permanently bored, in the ages before technology as we know it; life, especially for the lower classes, had a completely different set of exhausting challenges to overcome, which often left no room for leisure. And if one was lucky enough to be able to enjoy such pastimes, one would not know any different from a life void of technology. Perhaps a simpler time, based upon more direct human connection, is an advantage of past societies that we do not possess today. But there are two sides to everything, and it would be impossible to determine which kind of attitudes towards leisure are wholly good or wholly bad.

By, Rowan Speakman

(All images sourced from Wikimedia Commons).

The Demon’s Dollhouse – COVER REVEAL!

This is a post I can’t believe I am actually writing! I am so excited to reveal the gorgeous cover design for The Demon’s Dollhouse!

This incredible cover was designed by Rebecca and Andrew Brown at www.designforwriters.com , and I cannot wait to hold the paperback version of it my hands!

The Demon’s Dollhouse is my debut historical romance/psychological fiction novel, and it will be available on Amazon in both paperback and ebook format at the beginning of July!

Please give me a follow over on Instagram at @rowanspeakman, or on my blog account @rowan_writes_, and remember to grab a copy of The Demon’s Dollhouse this July!

Rowan Speakman xx

Hygiene Throughout History

People from times past tend to be represented in popular culture as uninformed and slovenly when it comes to practices of hygiene and self presentation, and this stems from one vital misconception; that our ancestors had little regard for their own health and cleanliness. In truth, people have always valued hygiene and strived to be as clean and presentable as possible; not only does the desire for cleanliness stem from the biological need to remain healthy, but in terms of social standing and attracting a partner, physical appearance and the maintenance of it was as important to people eight hundred years ago as it is today. However, the restricted amenities and medical knowledge of the times, as well as superstitions and varied societal values, limited the cleanliness that could be achieved. But to what extent were these limitations, and how did they fluctuate throughout the centuries?

The Middle Ages (5th Century – Late 15th Century)

Out of all of the historical periods, it is ye old medieval times which truly gets the worst slander in terms of personal hygiene. After the fall of the Roman Empire, and the loss of Viking influence from English soil, levels of cleanliness truly did take an undeniable plummet. But to get to the root of this perception, we need look no further than the centre of hygiene practices; water, and the ease of access to it after the demolition of Roman plumbing. Most settlements were established around some form of water source, as a means of basic survival, so unless one lived in a country of poor rainfall, chances are water would be nearby. Yet systems of running water were not to catch on for hundreds of years, and certainly not in the homes of ordinary, working people. And so the act of bathing would have been a labour in itself, involving multiple trips back and forward from the well or the river, carrying heavy buckets, before having to heat said water over a fire. The peasantry, without servants nor means of assistance, would not have had time for such practices, and baths in a tub would have been a luxury reserved for the middle classes and the nobility. But in a time where hands primarily took the places of cutlery, people did recognise the importance of rinsing them frequently in a basin of cold water, as well as washing one’s face, feet and crotch area daily. Around eighty percent of the population of medieval England worked hours of hard labour, and thus their bodies accumulated an inordinate amount of grime which required removing for the sake of basic health. The wealthier ends of society, especially those who lived in cities, were able to afford more frequent bathing in a barrel or a tub, yet even this consisted more of having water poured over oneself that actually immersing the body in water. Indeed, many noblemen would travel with a bathtub, but the frequency of bathing varied greatly between individuals, although to encounter anyone who bathed daily was rare.

The nobility also needed to pay more attention to hygiene, as their lives revolved far more around presentation, and displays of grandeur. Ladies in particular, took great care to ensure that they were as sweet smelling and appealing as possible. Soaps were introduced to England by the Crusaders, yet the earliest records of recipes date back to 2200 BC, but first began to be recognised for their cleansing properties by Islamic chemists after the birth of Christ. It was used both on the body, and more infrequently on the hair, as, in the case of women, long wet hair was a hazard in terms of chills, and therefore hair washing was kept to the barest minimum. The water jugs and bathtubs in wealthy households would often be sprinkled with fragrant herbs, such as rose petals or thyme. A noblewoman would be washed by her servants, wrapped in linen, and then put to bed to keep warm. Along with soaps, the Crusades introduced many perfumes to England, ranging from musk scents to those of lavender and lemon juice. Herbs, such as bay leaves or rocket seeds, took the place of deodorant, and unpleasant odours from dirt in the ears or fingernails could be removed with an ear scoop. But I know what you’re really thinking about; what about their teeth? Contrary to common belief, the state of medieval people in the dental department was fairly respectable, as sugar would not be introduced to the diet until the late sixteenth century. Teeth were cleaned daily with twigs or length of cloth or linen for basic maintenance, yet when a tooth went bad, the only solution was removal, and thus tooth loss was a very real fear.

The greatest threat to the hygiene of medieval society, was undeniably the poor systems of drainage and sewage. Towns or estates would have had a cesspit for the wastr of the peasantry, sometimes with a privy above into which the poor citizens could do their business. Straw or grass was used in place of toilet roll, yet the person who suffered the worst from the ideal, was he who was tasked with emptying said cesspits. Unfortunately, the contents were often buried underground, where they could easily leak into the water supply during boughts of heavy rainfall, or become the accidental sites of a new settlement. In towns, the streets were filthy and overhung by odour, especially in the hot months, due to the high volume of animals and their manure which would travel through them, providing an ideal environment for the already feared hordes of fleas and lice. The Black Death (1346-1352), prompted a great increase into governmental examination of the links between cleanliness and health, and regulations regarding ensuring the streets were kept in order increased dramatically. But for the nobility, conditions of sanitation varied greatly depending on the awareness of the noble in question, and the modernity of their castle or manor; many castles had a vast interior well from which water could be drawn up, and cisterns that could collect rainwater, even sometimes transporting it between different areas of the building. The privies of castles were in general located as far as possible from the inner chambers, and had chutes leading directly into the cesspit or the moat.

As well as being afforded better means of sanitation, some members of the upper classes also enjoyed the act of bathing as a social pastime, as the volume of public baths, or stewes, began to increase. These bath houses were often places of music, entertainment, and debauchery, and were greatly frowned upon by the church. Yet such places were easy for holy men to criticise, as monasteries boasted the best sewage systems and means of good hygiene across the country. Predictably, bathhouses would serve as a spreader of disease; another form of germ exposure that threatened the nobility was their fine gowns, often passed down from person to person, and never washed, as undergarments so often were. At least the peasantry would wash their garments in running water, but for the upper classes, most of their outerwear remained dry for its entire existence.

The Tudor Period (Late 15th Century to Early 17th Century)

As with many facets of life, the Tudor period was great transitional one in terms of human hygiene practices. The use of soap increased, especially among noble ladies, who would use soaps of olive oil, rather than animal fat, for their daily wash. Bathing remained a rare and complex process, and was associated with exposure to sickness and bad air, due to the opening of the pores stimulated by hot water. Yet it was during the Tudor period, that linen became revered as the key to cleanliness without moisture. The changing of undergarments and shifts occurred daily, and more more regularly during the summer months, and fresh linens were seen as a sign of good hygiene and status. Linen was also often used in place of water during a morning wash, to rub away grease and dirt from the skin. As much as water was avoided, systems of proper plumbing were only available to royalty, and thus many lower class people remained limited in their options. Henry VIII inherited many fine bathtubs in the estates of England, and had a new one constructed for himself, made of copper and complete with a charcoal boiler on the other side of the wall. In 1596, Elizabeth I’s godson gifted her what could be considered the first flushing toilet, but its influence did not reach far. Draining systems and quicker methods of heating were becoming possible, yet the wealthy still held the monopoly on them.

Perfume was more commonly used as a symbol of status as opposed to an attempt to cover up any odours, which were in the majority, mostly combatted by the frequent wipe downs and changes of undergarments. But aside from the greasy, albeit well combed, hair, it is the dental hygiene of the late Tudor period that sticks out as particularly repulsive. With the introduction of sugar into the diets of the wealthy, condition of teeth rapidly deteriorated, and teeth rotting and requiring removal became more frequent. Oddly, black, decaying teeth became fashionable for a while, as a symbol of high status indicative that the individual in question could afford the luxury of sugar. No doubt this was still commonly regarded as repulsive, and achieved only bad breath as opposed to social standing. Another disconcerting factor was the hereditary nature of bath water in many middle class homes, with the lord of the house bathing first, followed by his wife and children; perhaps in these cases, people in were in fact cleaner without touching water.

The 17th- 18th Centuries

Throughout the next few centuries, the practice of using fresh linen as the primary means of keeping clean, reigned supreme. The schools of thoughts in regards to the heath benefits of bathing continued to be at odds with one another, with some, such as Louis Pasteur, championing regular washing for its enormous health benefits, and some holding fast to the idea that it exposed the bather to disease. Yet it was generally agreed, that cold or running water was more beneficial for health. The exposure of one’s skin even for the purpose of cleanliness was viewed by the more conservative in society, as sensual and sinful (then why didn’t God make humans with clothes?), and the fashion of bathing became rarer and rarer throughout the eighteenth century. Yet a few individuals, such as Queen Caroline, wife of George II, bathed on such a regular basis that it was remarked upon by those around her. She would have linens suspended over her baths, as well as lining them, to create the effect of the saunas so popular in the northern countries. Yet public baths and spas remained centres of socialisation, often boasting healing mineral waters and providing a chance for a person of the nobility to show off their numerous linen shifts, the number and quality of which were seen as a status symbol.

During the eighteenth century in particular, women of royalty or high aristocracy were subjected to the public ordeal of the lady’s toilette, in which their morning routine was essentially a public display, filled with morning visitors to crowd the poor woman’s apartments as she was washed down with perfumes, dressed and readied for the day. Tooth powders flourished as a way of caring for one’s dental health, and were often mixed at home to be stored in tins and jars for use. The first mouthwash was created in 1755, by the physician of Louis XV, including ingredients such as anise and ginger, and the popularity of it swiftly caught on. Despite the focus on oral products, including primitive toothbrushes of linen on the end of a wooden device, foul smelling breath increased along with the sugar consumption of the upper classes. Another source of odour was the fine, expensive gowns that were too valuable to wash and could only be aired, and therefore grew musty and lice ridden over the years, unlike undergarments which could be frequently boiled and washed. That is not even mentioning the wigs that were all the fashion for so many decades, and the ecosystems probably thriving within them. One commonly suspected source of soiled clothing was menstruation, but this is unlikely to be true, despite a lack of many concrete records detailing the exact nature of sanitary product use. Yet a few accounts point towards the use of old rags, or chauffoirs, held up by belts, as methods of preventing blood flow from staining expensive garments. Indeed, people were very careful in the washing of their intimate areas, with the bidet becoming a popular part of the toilette during the Georgian period. Male healthcare and grooming also became more prominent during this time, with beards dismissed as slovenly and relating to low status, this prompting the increased quality of shaving devices, including new razors of cast steel. Many men could now shave at home without needing to visit a barber, and new creams, scents and powders bolstered their beauty routines. Another beauty related health hazard was the popularity of lead makeup, worn often by both genders and serving as the the root of many vile skin conditions.

Yet for ordinary citizens, hygiene had not evolved much, with access to running water still greatly limited, and sewage systems continuing to overflow in populated areas. Despite the first flushing toilet being patented in 1775, most people still hunched over a commode pan or a chamber pot, to be emptied into a cesspit by some unfortunate soul. It was still to be many years before any new ideas enjoyed by the rich would be granted with similar swiftness to those less fortunate than themselves.

19th Century – Early 20th Century

The nineteenth century was to prove a turning point in the fields of sanitation and plumbing, and was truly the time period which shaped that which we live in today. The amenity of soap became much more widespread and accessible to the lower classes, although more solid forms were usually reserved for the wealthy. During the 1790s, man made lye had become the standard ingredient for soap, although the production of it remained a lengthy process. The view of washing one’s hair as bad health practice began to fade during the regency era, and in 1814, a Bengali traveller and his wife opened the first shampooing bath in Brighton, yet liquid shampoo would not come into use until the 1920s; indeed, regency shampoo was essentially just soap with additional herbal additives. Daily washing of one’s hair was still rare and considered odd, and a semi weekly basis was the most common. Conditioners made of sandalwood, tea tree and grapeseed became popular, as a woman’s hair was considered to be a hallmark of great beauty which ought to be taken care of. Pomade, a substance consisting of bear fat or lard, was used to style hair and to give it an impression of sleekness and shine, and was used by both sexes. A blight on the general health of hair was the use of ammonia as a method cleansing, yet not everyone practiced this, and hair was in general kept thoroughly combed and in good condition. Many women preserved their hair in a nightcap whilst sleeping.

The practice of flossing caught on from 1815 onwards, and its results in the improvement of general dental cleanliness were dramatic. The tools of oral health, such as toothpicks and tongue scrapers, were often stored in beautiful cases and treated as the luxury items they were. Yet it was not until 1844 that the first proper bristle toothbrush was invented, and not until the 1930s that its modern nylon counterpart caught on. Deodorant now took on the from of scented powders, or in the case of the gentleman, bay rum, an old sailor’s concoction. Yet the changing of line’s remained the primary method of fighting sweat, as outerwear was usually only brushed down. Specially shaped dress shields were placed under the arms to protect such garments from body odour. Particularly during the highly conservative Victorian period, there was much debate about the morality of full bathing to removed such sweat, both due to the nudity involved and the concerns of extreme temperatures causing illnesses such as rash or madness. Makeup was also deemed immoral in the Victorian age, and was socially permitted only in the theatre, lest the woman wearing it be dubbed a prostitute.

Down in the pipes, great change was underway. In 1810, the first pump operated shower began to be sold, based on the 1767 invention, although baths remained more common until the shower as we roughly know it came into use in the 1880s. The spread of systems of running water was coming on leaps and bounds, with the opening of the Tremont Hotel in Boston in 1829 marking the first hotel to be able to offers its guests running water. Four years later, the ground floor of the White House was equipped with this luxury, and by 1856, modern plumbing systems were established in the USA. By the end of the nineteenth century, most well off homes had proper systems of plumbing built in, the most grand including porcelain tubs and even foot baths. Methods of fueling the boiler relied on materials such as coal until 1868, when a more modern water heater was invented. Yet of course, lower class families still resorted to heating their water over a stove, and washing themselves in a metal tub by the hearth. In cities, many households often shared a privy with others on their street, and some poor fellow still had to empty the contents under cover of night. Speaking of such things, sheets of toilet roll became available for purchase in 1857, with rolls as we know it popping up in the early 1890s, following the invention of the ceramic toilet in 1870. But for the former half of the century, corncobs or newspapers were most commonly used in their place.

So there you have it, a brief history of humanity’s hygiene habits, both those wonderful and those vile! I think it is important to remember that fundamental human values such as cleanliness and presentation, have remained key in society throughout the centuries, and fluctuated between individuals as much as they do today. Although if we were to go back in time, by modern standards we would most likely find people to be of a worse level of hygiene than ourselves, the standards of the era were very different. Any odours as a result of a lack of general societal understanding would not have been noticed; yet those who deviated from the proper practices of the times would have been pulled up for it, as hygiene was still integral to the daily lives of our ancestors. The standard was simply different, but there was still a standard. I hope you took away something interesting, either to store in the random knowledge part of your brain, or to help you with crafting a historical world in your writing. Is there anything I’ve missed, or any interesting facts you know about the history of hygiene? If so, leave a comment!

By, Rowan Speakman

(All images sourced from Wikimedia Commons).

Ranking the Best Books on My Shelf

Since I started this blog, I’ve been posting about my favourite books from across a variety of authors and genres, and talking about what makes them examples of fabulous writing, and why they are each so very special to me. Now this theme is drawing to a close (for now), I’ve decided to attempt to rank them, and to work out which book takes the top spot as my favourite of all time.

12)The Wrong Family – Tarryn Fisher

Genre: Psychological Fiction/Domestic Thriller

The Wrong Family is one of the tautest, most multi-layered domestic thrillers I have ever read. Set in the grey rain of Seattle, the novel follows Juno, a homeless woman frogging in the home of a dysfunctional couple with a disturbing secret concerning their child. It’s intimate, gritty, brutal and shocking, with some cleverly woven in discussions about privilege, motherhood and judgment. Author Tarryn Fisher is a fresh, impressive talent, with a bibliography of equally dark reads. So why have I put it at the bottom of my list? Simple because it failed to capture my heart the way a lot of the other books on this list did, but I don’t feel that that was the author’s intention. As readers, we all have different ideas about how we want books to make us feel, and this one just didn’t quite have the magic that I personally look for in a favourite book. But this is still a fantastic novel, and it has a place in this theme for a reason.

Full post here.

Read if: You feel like a grounded, gritty, dark contemporary novel with realistic characters, a domestic setting and brutal plot twists.

11)Violet Bent Backwards Over The Grass – Lana Del Rey

Genre: Poetry

Lana Del Rey’s stunning poetic debut has all the hallmarks of her lyrical talent, but also pushes forward into the new style of writing present in her latest music. It’s a collection of simple yet powerful poems about the joys of the little things in life, and celebrating all the weird and wonderful things that come with being an artist. The only reason it places so low on this list, is due to its being an anomaly as a poetry collection in a sea of novels, and because some of the poems seem quite repetitive in intent. Yet it displays narrative and characterisation skills to rival many great novels, and is the product of one of the greatest songwriters of our generation.

Read full post here.

Read if: You’re a fellow fan of Lana Del Rey’s music, you’re a soft romantic, or you love poetry that takes on a deeper meaning each time you read it.

10)The Great Gatsby – F. Scott Fitzgerald

Genre: Tragedy/Historical Fiction

A few years ago, Gatsby would have most likely been near, if not at the top of this list, but as I discussed in my post about the book, it’s interesting how the way you view a piece of literature changes over time. Set in the ‘Jazz Age’, F. Scott Fitzgerald’s classic novella follows the events of a doomed summer in Long Island, and billionaire Jay Gatsby’s ultimately vapid obsession with attaining the love of the fickle Daisy Buchanan. The book has been a cultural phenomenon, appearing on countless school curriculums and inspiring dozens of interpretations, evening creeping into meme culture. The writing is sumptuous, the themes big and bold, yet the main issue many have with the novel is the coldness of the characters. Yet this heartlessness serves the greater narrative message of the novel, and paints a picture of a society driven by materialism and ambition. But, upon my third reading, it wasn’t the romantic epic I once viewed it as, and I found it impossible to truly love any of the characters, which can be a struggle for a character driven author.

Read full post here.

Read if: You feel like a classic novel, you love the 1920s, you want to read an example of gorgeous use of language, or you simply want to understand the memes.

9)His Dark Materials – Philip Pullman

Genre: High Fantasy/Science Fantasy

His Dark Materials is one of the most successful and intelligently written fantasy series’ ever published. The scopey, philosophical tale follows Lyra, a girl destined to be the deciding factor in a religious war between the forces of conformity and free will. The novels possesses the timeless quality of transforming from a children’s book to an adult story in the hands of the specific reader. With strong characters, epic imagery and a gorgeously original plot, the story is quickly becoming a highly re-readable classic, and one that is accessible to all age groups.

Read full post here.

Read if: You’re craving an intelligent and poignant fantasy series, you enjoy books with a deeper meaning, or you’re looking for a refreshing and original read.

8)Something in the Water – Catherine Steadman

Genre: Thriller/Suspense/Psychological Fiction

This entry was my first in the Best Books on My Shelf series, and it’s one that still stands out to me. Written from the first person perspective of the witty and wily Erin, Something in the Water follows an idyllic couple who discover a bag full of incriminating items from a plane crash whilst scuba diving on their honeymoon. As the gravity of the situation tests both their moral compasses and tears their marriage apart, Erin and Mark are forced to face the consequences of their miraculous find. Like Liane Moriarty’s Nine Perfect Strangers, the book is imbued with a wonderful twisted humour and energy as a result of its strong lead. Yet author Catherine Steadman is able to combine this narrative vigour with a strikingly realistic account of events which forces the reader to question what they themselves would do in such a situation.

Read full post here.

Read if: You enjoy a fun, realistic and energetic protagonist, you enjoy novels about ordinary people in impossible situations or you love a clever plot twist.

7)Nine Perfect Strangers – Liane Moriarty

Genre: Thriller/Psychological Fiction

Nine Perfect Strangers is without a doubt, Liane Moriarty’s most original, and most underrated novel. Set in a dubious wellness retreat in the Australian countryside, the book follows a motley collection of struggling individuals looking for a way to change their lives. But perfection has a price; in this case, it comes in the form of Masha, the terrifying head therapist of the retreat, whose radical methods are a perfect satire of the ridiculousness of many modern wellness programmes. The novel has a deliciously dark wit, and is brimming with wonderful character interactions which display a unique writing talent.

Read full post here.

Read if: You love found family character interaction, you’re looking for an original read, you fancy some dark and twisted humour, or you’re into disaster novels.

6)The Invisible Life of Addie LaRue – V.E. Schwab

Genre: Historical Fantasy/Low Fantasy

The Invisible Life of Addie LaRue stands out in this list as a member of a subgenre I rarely read; low fantasy. Yet the incredible writing, the weight and depth of the plot and characters, as well as the historical elements make the novel an instant classic with a memorable cinematic power. Growing up discontented in early eighteenth century France, Addie LaRue makes a deal with the dark, in which she is granted eternal youth and freedom, for the payment of being forgotten by all she meets. Three hundred years later, Addie meets Henry, another victim of the curse, and together they are forced to confront the heart wrenching consequences of their choices. The striking imagery, complex characters and gut punching ending elevate the novel to an entirely new level, and have cemented it as a beloved story among book lovers.

Read full post here.

Read if: You want to read a long book, you love striking and cinematic visuals, or you fancy a tear jerking love story.

5)The Glass Hotel – Emily St. John Mandel

Genre: Mystery/Psychological Fiction/Literary Fiction

The Glass Hotel was the first of Emily St. John Mandel’s gorgeous novels I read, and I fell in love instantly. Her ability to take a cold, clinical topic and fill it with magic, depth and humanity, is never more evident than in this book. Haunting and nostalgic, The Glass Hotel follows the intertwining lives of the minds behind, and the victims of, a Ponzi scheme. Yet Mandel is less concerned with the nature of the scheme itself, but with the lives and struggles of those affected by it, and how one fateful night at a hotel on an isolated Canadian island links them all together. It is a story of isolation, greed and human flaws, as well as evidence of a rare and unique talent.

Read full post here.

Read if: You like the style of literary fiction, you feel like reading a haunting, human book, or you want to know a bit more about some of the minor characters from Station Eleven ;).

4)Wuthering Heights – Emily Bronte

Genre: Tragedy/Gothic Fiction

None of the screen adaptations can truly compare to the razor sharp, dark writing of Emily Bronte’s classic novel. Set in the bitter wilderness of the Yorkshire moors in the late eighteenth century, Wuthering Heights tells the tale of the otherworldly passion between young aristocrat Cathy, and the vicious foundling Heathcliff, and the devastating consequences of it. I believe that the genius of the novel is truly unveiled when one does not view it as a love story, but rather a powerful tale of wildness versus civility. Told from the overlooked perspective of maidservant Nelly Dean, the tragedies of the Earnshaw and Linton families are brutal and heart wrenching, and have cemented the book as a rare piece of Gothic fiction from an even rarer talent.

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Read if: You want to read a true literary classic, you love dark characters and Gothic fiction, or you want to immerse yourself in the writing style of the nineteenth century.

3)The Familiars – Stacey Halls

Genre: Historical Fiction/Paranormal Fiction

We have now reached the part of this list where I am truly struggling to rank these books, as they are all my favourites in so many different ways. But at number three, we have The Familiars, the gorgeous debut from Lancashire born author Stacey Halls. In 1612 Lancashire, young gentlewoman Fleetwood Shuttleworth is struggling to give her husband an heir against the backdrop of the witch hunts ravaging the land. In desperation, she turns to the assistance of local midwife Alice, but finds her life torn apart when Alice is accused of witchcraft. As Fleetwood comes to terms with the true nature of the witch trials, she finds her morals changed and her voice unlocked as she struggles to save her only friend, and her child. Delightful and powerful to read, The Familiars is a story of female solidarity, religion and a terrifying patriarchal attitude that has tendrils reaching even to this day.

Read full post here.

Read if: You love historical fiction from a rarely explored period, you love stories about female friendship, or you want a thought provoking and relevant read.

2)Hungry Hill – Daphne du Maurier

Genre: Historical Fiction

I believe Hungry Hill is one of the lesser known reads in this collection, and I truly wish that this were otherwise. A product of the mind of acclaimed author Daphne Du Maurier, the novel is different, quieter and more grounded than her other works, but imbued with a power and skill just as memorable. In nineteenth century Ireland, the Broderick family gain wealth and prestige through the mines they build on the ominous Hungry Hill, unbeknownst to them that the power it affords them is cursed to inflict tragedy upon each generation of Brodericks. The novel follows the characters over five such generations, examining their dreams, desires, fears, flaws and loves as they negotiate the industrial expectations put upon them by the creation of the mines. It’s a haunting tale of a flawed and privileged, yet deeply human family, and it holds a very special place in my heart. Despite the large cast, each character is rich and essential to the story, and participates in its discussion of prosperity versus happiness. Although the premise may not suggest it, Hungry Hill also contains some beautiful love stories, which could rival most romance novels. My post on this was one of my longest, simply because there is so much to unpack in this seriously underrated masterpiece.

Read full post here.

Read if: You enjoy stories that span generations, you want to read some of Daphne Du Maurier’s hidden gems, or you enjoy a beautiful love story or two.

1)Station Eleven – Emily St. John Mandel

Genre: Dystopian/Adventure Fiction

This spot was a very close call between The Familiars, Hungry Hill and Station Eleven, and I know that the choice of the latter was a predictable, and very common one. Yet this story was one that spoke to me very deeply, both personally and in relation to the times we are living in currently. The novel follows the lives of a group of creative individuals, both before and after the effects of a devastating pandemic, and how they are interwoven by memories of art, music and theatre. As with The Glass Hotel, Mandel dismisses a scientific investigation of the nature of the pandemic, and focuses instead on the spiritual survival of its victims, and what distinguishes us as human beings in the face of such atrocities. Every chapter comes alive with the haunting magic of Mandel’s writing, and the clever way in which she elicits a profound emotional response in her reader. In the way in which people across the world have turned to film, music and art during the COVID 19 pandemic, so too do the characters of Station Eleven, even though it was penned a good six years prior to recent events. It’s a powerful, original and ultimately uplifting tale, and it embodies all that makes literature great and touching.

Read full post here.

Read if: You need a story of overcoming the odds, you want a book relevant to the current times we are living in, or you love a cleverly woven together plot.

By Rowan Speakman x

Writing Historical Fiction

Historical fiction is my favourite genre, to read, to watch and to write. And, as someone who has always struggled to pin down her genre, I am happy to say that I have finally found it; my debut novel, The Demon’s Dollhouse, a psychological romance set in the 1930s, is being released this July, and I have two other historical manuscripts under way. I am hardly an expert by any means, but as with any genre, the more you read and the more you write in and around it, the stronger you become as a writer of it. For me, historical fiction is a genre which gives me both passion and excitement for writing, and challenges me to up my game with each WIP. So here are a few of the reasons why this is a such a brilliant genre, and here a few tips for writing in it.

1)It’s a perfect blend of reality and fantasy. Fantasy is one of the bestselling genres in modern fiction, and for good reason; for writers, it provides endless freedom for imagination and creativity, and for readers, it provides the escapism of visiting a world so unlike our own. Yet for many writers and readers, the abstract worlds, customs and places associated with fantasy make it an inaccessible and unrelatable genre. Historical fiction treats the reader to a society, people, practices and world events apart from our own, but they are grounded in the real world, and are thus more substantial and easier to relate to. They have a certain weight to them, accompanied with a romanticism and a grandeur which is often criticised, but is one of the greatest hallmarks and strengths of the genre. Your characters live in a world void of the technology we know today, with a greater level of sincerity and decorum. There are of course, pros and cons to every era, and realistically, the one we live in today is probably the one of the greatest liberty. But that doesn’t mean that certain values have not been lost over time, and that we should not celebrate nor remember them in works of fiction. And while it’s important to be aware of the realities of your chosen time period, you the author get to choose the sort of people you write about, and what issues you discuss. Life and human beings were still complex in bygone eras, and if you want to write a story in with women who are treated as equals, LGBT characters who are respected and in which race never becomes an issue. then go ahead, because it would make for a beautiful read.

2)You learn not only about writing, but about the period you are writing in. It’s undeniable that in order to write any historical fiction novel, you will have to do some research, now matter how little or how much is required. Unless the inside of your brain is literally a history book, chances are you will be required to do some reading, some googling and some note taking, to ensure that you are avoiding as much historical error as possible, and that you understand the essence of life in your chosen period. And it’s honestly one of my favourite parts of the process, because I learn fascinating things about events, people, fashion and social customs that I might never have known had I decided not to write this book. The protagonist of The Demon’s Dollhouse is a passionate figure skater, so in order to make those scenes feel true to his character, I had to make sure I knew some basic principles of the sport, and various jumps and movements, both those of nowadays and of the 1930s. I found it fascinating, and I know now some random information that I otherwise would have been oblivious to. Thanks to my current WIP, I now know so much more about the Napoleonic Wars in Italy, and about how fashion changed and evolved through the nineteenth century. Whether you’re making pages of detailed notes, or you’re googling ‘what kind of cakes did they have in China in 1852’, you’re going to learn something, and you might just turn your brain into a history book by the end of it.

3)The characters you write will face a whole new set of complex emotions and challenges associated with the times they live in. Every era of society has different values, different expectations and different societal issues. And depending on who your characters are, they will experience these challenges differently. Most women in regency England would consider making a good marriage to be the goal of her life; while a modern feminist would dismiss this as weakness, for a woman of the time this was what was expected of her, just as young women nowadays are expected to obtain a good career as much as their male counterparts. Medieval society functioned on principles such as feudalism and a fear of God; yet the way an elderly king relates to these ideas will be utterly different to how a young peasant girl does. Exploring problems associated with the past not only teaches a writer how to get inside the head of a character with a completely different lifestyle to them, but it also encourages the reader to compare this lifestyle with a modern one. How would you feel if you were a young man expected to go and fight in a war? Would you have liked to have been an eighteenth century queen? And you may also find similarities, both in societal issues and values, and in the nature of humanity; for example, humans as a race have always desired love, regardless of whether they were born in in 1221 or 2021. Yet the path two people from each of these years would embark on in order to obtain it would be very different.

4)You get to change up or improve your linguistic style. When you are writing a contemporary novel, the focus is often realism in everyday interactions. And realistically, people in the twenty-first-century speak quite casually. The dialogue, ‘Hey, cool bike you got there, man,” wouldn’t be unreasonable in the slightest. But if you’re writing a book set in the Victorian era, all realism surrounding this disappears. Speech has changed over time, and varies between classes and backgrounds across all eras. But in general, literature set in a time period prior to 1950 (which is considered the cut-off point for historical fiction), adopts a more sophisticated linguistic approach. This formal style of writing is the unofficial language of historical fiction; most writers would use it even if they were writing a book set in the 1300s, because no reader is going to understand or enjoy a book in which the characters speak in true Middle English. This may sound stressful, especially if you’re used to writing in the straightforward, grounded style of contemporary fiction. But in truth, it elevates your language skills to a whole new level, introducing new words into your vocabulary and giving your writing a certain beauty which is truly exclusive to historical fiction. And soon enough, it becomes natural, but if you’re struggling, try paying close attention to the language of books within the genre, and read books penned by classic authors such as Jane Austen, Daphne Du Maurier or Charlotte Bronte.

I think a lot of people find the idea of writing in a historical era intimidating, and fear being bogged down by historical limitations, or worse being *gasp* historically inaccurate. But we must remember that this is not history, this is historical fiction, and there are so many different ways to approach it. While it is best to strive to be as accurate as possible in your depictions of a time period, remember not to let tiny technicalities get in the way of you writing a great story, and remember that this is your take on the era, and your character’s roles within it. And it’s not an easy genre, because it is such a unique one. But if you have a love for history, for gorgeous language and the literary visions of a romantic, you are half way there. All you need is a story you are passionate about, and the determination to research and plan it.

To read more about historical fiction and other genres, check out my ‘Defining Your Genre’ post.

To take a look a look at some of the incredible women who have given me inspiration in my historical fiction writing, check out my Unsung Women of History list.

My debut novel, The Demon’s Dollhouse will be released on Amazon this July; feel free to follow my blog, and my Instagram blog account @rowan_writes_ and my Facebook page Rowan Speakman Books. 🙂

For more writing advice, go to the page My Writing Journey, for a list of all of my posts. 🙂

By Rowan Speakman

Lady Hester Stanhope (1776 – 1839)

Undoubtedly one of the most unconventional and charismatic women of her time, Lady Hester Stanhope led a life which begs a big screen adaptation. The relative of several prominent Napoleonic era prime ministers, a sharp and opinionated member of society, a passionate lover, an intrepid explorer, and a revered figure throughout the Middle East are just some of the titles Hester Stanhope boasted throughout her extraordinary life. Ostracized and criticised by the confines of the British aristocracy, she acted upon the fantasies many young women of the time would have surely possessed, leaving behind her cold home for a life of adventure in the company of friends. Yet her fierce and bright personality and her unheard of exploits in the continent were sadly to be blighted by tragedies and heartbreak, of which such a vibrant person was deeply undeserving.

Despite the bold and adventurous lifestyle Lady Hester would come to be known for, her early years were spent in the greatest comforts of the nobility. She was the granddaughter of former prime minister William Pitt the elder, and the niece of William Pitt the younger, who followed in his father’s footsteps and held office as prime minister from 1783 to 1801, during the political turbulence caused by the Napoleonic wars. Hester’s father was the earl Charles Stanhope, a scientist and inventor who put his work above all, even his children. When Hester was only four, her mother died, leaving her to care for her two younger sisters. While her father was devastated by his wife’s death, he swiftly remarried in order to produce a son and heir, and fathered three more children. However, Hester’s new stepmother proved to be an absentee one, who preferred the London social scene to the Stanhope estate at Chevening. Charles Stanhope was, to his daughter’s disdain, a keen supporter of the French Revolution, his liberal ideas being in keeping with his scientific ones. He wished to sell off Chevening to fund his work, entrapping his son in Kent to try and force him to agree to the sale. The children lived in fear of their father, yet Hester, the eldest, resolved to stand against his cruelty, and took on an almost maternal role towards her siblings. However, she and Charles did respect one another, particularly when it came to their mutual high intellect. But in 1800, she was disowned and barred from the estate, after her elaborate scheme to free her brother Philip, and send him to university in Germany.

Afterwards, Hester went to live with her grandmother, the Countess of Chatham. Now twenty four, Hester was tall and striking, with a highly divisive personality. Some found her outspoken nature, quick witted tongue and fierce intellect, stimulating, whilst others found her to be shocking and offensive. Hester preferred the company of male friends, with whom she might discuss subjects such a politics, travel and philosophy, these friendships earning her even more social disdain. In 1802, Hester travelled abroad for the first time, yet a resurgence in the conflicts across Europe forced her to return to England, only to meet the tragedy of her grandmother’s demise. For the next three years, she was to live with her uncle, who became prime minister again in 1804, and was to enjoy a period of respect, influential company and a high social position. Pitt made Hester his private secretary, and entrusted her to host many important dinners and events at Downing Street. Her closeness with her uncle did not prevent cruel gossip, but it thusofar acted as a barrier from it which maintained her social status. Yet a downfall of her political connections, was the fake friends which flocked to her side as a result, and would leave it just as quickly when Pitt died in 1806. One of these false companions was Hester’s first love, politician Granville Leveson Gower, a renowned womaniser who she fell head over heels for. Hester made her strong feelings for Gower adamantly known, both to him and to those around her, instead of being discreet with her feelings as expected of a lady. Yet Gower had no intention of marrying her, merely seeing her as a means to political advantage. When he left for Russia, Hester was coated in a scandal from which she had no protection after Pitt’s death. One of the only true friends to stay by her side was Sir John Moore, an army general who was killed in the Spanish wars in 1809, along with her brother, Charles. It was said that the general’s last words were of Hester, and tragically it was suspected that their friendship could have become something more had he not died.

Despite a generous pension left behind by her uncle, Hester had spent the years since his death living in a small house with her two brothers, unable to afford a carriage to bar her from the social disgrace of walking alone. Her reputation was in tatters after the departure of Gower, and her heart was broken from the loss of her brother, and of her only true friend. Now branded a ‘fallen woman’, and suffering ill health, Hester decided to travel abroad on medical recommendation, and in 1810, she left England with her maid, her physician Charles Meyron, and her brother James, among others. Thus began her great life of travel, and her determination to never see England again. Due to her relation to a former primer minister, she was able to gain passage to Europe aboard a Royal Navy vessel. When their ship docked in Gibraltar, Hester made the acquaintance of Michael Bruce, a charming and sharp young politician, who joined the travelling party, and who became her lover during their stay in Malta. She rather inappropriately wrote to Bruce’s father to inform him of this, and the relationship further deepened her conviction not to return home, as she knew she would only be chastised for it. The next stop was Greece, where Hester encountered the famed poet, Lord Byron (father of Ada Lovelace), who disdainfully described her as possessing ‘that dangerous thing, a female wit’ and, rather hypocritically chastised her lack of conventional decorum. Thus the travellers continued through the country, into Turkey, and to Egypt, where Hester learned Turkish and Arabic. During this time, she also developed a strange, rather arrogant scheme in which she planned to sail to France and spy on Napoleon on behalf of her country. Obviously this never came to fruition, but I honestly would not have put it past her.

En route to Turkey, the party became shipwrecked and lost their clothes, and were forced to sport traditional Turkish garb for the remainder of the trip; Hester found the robe, turban and slippers so comfortable that she would wear them for the rest of her days. She was to be received in state throughout the Middle East, and presented herself shockingly without the traditional garment of a veil, choosing to remain in masculine attire. Even in lands such as Constantinople and Demascus, before the Sultan himself, Hester rode in with a bare face and the air of royalty, and earned shock and respect wherever she went. She was even hailed as ‘Queen Hester’, as her reputation for courage, wit and charisma spread with her travels. In 1813, Hester made a journey through the deserts to visit Palmyra, with a caravan of twenty-two camels, against the advice of all around her; the desert was dangerous and rarely traversed by travellers. Yet Hester persisted, and was welcomed in Palmyra as a queen, the people stunned into stillness at her veil-less face, or cheering for her courage and determination at completing such a journey. In her memoirs, Hester joyfully recalled how they placed a wreath of flowers around her neck, and how much love she felt for the Syrian people. Another facet of her which earned high regard, were her astounding abilities as a horsewoman, practiced from a young age and admired even by the Bedouin peoples. So highly esteemed was Hester, that on one occasion, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was cleared of visitors just for her arrival. Such high regard and acceptance must have felt very freeing for a woman so long scorned by her homeland, and at odds with its societal values.

Yet Hester’s happiness was sadly not to last, for her heart was again to be broken; the same year she embarked on the journey to Palmyra, Hester’s lover of three years, Michael Bruce, was called back to England when his father took ill. Once home, his correspondence with Hester was rare, and eventually stopped altogether. He did not fulfil his promise to aid his former lover financially, and Hester was still utterly reliant on her governmental pension, which she refused to alter her lifestyle around. All of the travelling, the meets with various people of nobility and the general requirements of living, was done with the greatest decadence on Hester’s part, and she failed to consider the limitations of her financial situation. In 1815, her situation was worsened when she fell gravely ill with a plague that was travelling through the area, just after her loyal physician left to return to England for a while. By now, her brother James had also departed to marry back home, and so Hester was left with her maids and a few other companions. But she pulled through the illness, and decided to embark upon another escapade. Having come into the possession of a medieval Italian manuscript, Hester believed that its contents pointed to a horde of treasure hidden in a monastery at Ashkelon, on the Mediterranean coast. Her expedition was to be the first true archaeological excavation in Palestine, and the first to adopt modern archaeological principles. But no such troves of gold existed, and the only find of value was a seven foot marble statue, which Hester adamantly ordered be smashed to pieces. Although this is arguably a travesty, her aim was to convince the Ottoman government that she did not intend to steal such artifacts and ship them abroad.

By now, Hester had taken up a more settled residence in what is now Lebanon, in various abandoned monasteries, and was becoming more and more entrenched in Middle Eastern customs. She continued to keep a large household, and to host many important political visitors. In a way, she was an unspoken de facto ruler of the region, to an extent that in 1832, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt sought peace with her when he intended to invade Syria. Although once favoured by Mehemet Ali, Hester soon earned his enmity when she sheltered hundreds of Drueze refugees during the clan wars, and openly favoured their rebellion. Yet with her commanding character, her knowledge of Arabic culture and her strange beliefs in her own divinity, Hester maintained the respect of the Syrian people. But now she was more isolated that ever, before what with her brother James’ suicide in 1825, and the death of her beloved maid three years later. And yet one remnant of her old life remained; her faithful doctor, Charles Meyron, who was rumoured to be in love with her. He returned to Syria to visit Hester in 1819, and again embarked in 1827, with his family in tow, and faced much hardship to reach Lebanon. His final visit was paid in 1837, towards the end of Lady Hester’s life. By now, she resided in Djoun, in an old monastery up in the mountains; here she truly became a recluse, and sank further into her dedication to Eastern mysticism and medicine. She was suspected to have been suffering mentally, or to have gone prematurely senile. She still believed she was destined to be the wife of a messiah, and kept her servants as if she were, commanding that they treat her beloved Arab mare like royalty. To Hester’s dismay, her pension from the English government was finally cut off, and her letters went unanswered. She would only take visitors after dark, and had shaved her head for ease, covering it permanently with a turban.

Hester died in her sleep in 1839, alone and shut in in her monastery. She was laid to rest in her garden, until her tomb was destroyed in her civil war and she was reburied on the estate of the British ambassador. In 2004, her ashes were scattered at Chevening. The events of her extraordinary life were chronicled in three volumes of memoirs written by Charles Meyron, and published in 1846.

The life of Hester Stanhope truly sounds like something of myth or fiction, so fantastical and astounding was it. But rather than her numerous achievements themselves, it is the character behind them that I admire the most. Hester displayed a courage even greater than that she summoned when crossing the deserts to Palmyra; she had the courage to embrace her own nature, and to live her life by her now terms, for her own ambitions. She simply did not care for appearance or the delicacies of societal convention, for in her eyes life was too short for that. And yet, the heartbreak she experienced and the isolation she suffered towards the end of her life are undeniably tragic. Hester was a passionate woman, and sadly this passion was not rewarded with a faithful partner and a loving family. Or perhaps she truly was happy in the end, alone with her mythicism, her eccentricities and her horses. We shall never know, but if there’s anything we can learn from her, it’s to never deny our own natures, and to never be afraid to go after what we want. Two values that women throughout history have been discouraged from upholding, and two that enabled Hester Stanhope to achieve a life many thought impossible.

By Rowan Speakman

(All images sourced from Wikimedia Commons).